*Beyond Compliance: An Information Package on the Inclusion of People with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education

Compiled and Edited by
Rebecca Cory, Steve Taylor, Pamela Walker, and Julia White

With additional contributions by
Jagdish Chander, Eugene Marcus, Michael Schwartz,
Valerie Smith, Cheryl Spear, and Rachael Zubal-Ruggieri

National Resource Center on Supported Living and Choice
Center on Human Policy
Syracuse University
805 South Crouse Avenue
Syracuse, NY 13244-2280
(315) 443-3851
September 2003

The materials in this information package were compiled for anyone interested in learning about disability issues in postsecondary education.
Preparation of this information package was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR), under Contract No. H133A990001 awarded to the National Resource Center on Supported Living and Choice, Center on Human Policy, School of Education, Syracuse University. The opinions expressed within are those solely of the author, and no official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education is inferred.

Also, this information package includes reprints that we are unable to produce here on our web site. We have indicated contact information for each resource, or you can obtain a complete copy of this information package by contacting the Center on Human Policy via email at thechp@syr.edu , by phone at 315-443-3851 or 1-800-894-0826 (both voice), or by writing to the address listed above.

 

Contents

Information on Contributors

Jagdish Chander is a third year doctoral student in Cultural Foundations of Education with a concentration in Disability Studies at Syracuse University.

Rebecca Cory is a third year doctoral student in Cultural Foundations of Education with concentrations in Disability Studies and Higher Education at Syracuse University.

Eugene Marcus is an Associate at the Facilitated Communication Institute at Syracuse University and a person with autism.

Michael Schwartz is a third year doctoral student in Cultural Foundations of Education with a concentration in Disability Studies at Syracuse University.

Valerie Smith, Ph.D. is an assistant professor of Education at Hobart William Smith Colleges in Geneva, NY. Valerie holds her Doctorate in Special Education with a concentration in Disability Studies from Syracuse University.

Cheryl Spear is a fifth year doctoral student in Cultural Foundations of Education with a concentration in Disability Studies at Syracuse University.

Steven J. Taylor, Ph.D. is Professor of Cultural Foundations of Education, Director of the Center on Human Policy, and Coordinator of Disability Studies at Syracuse University.

Julia White is a third year doctoral student in Special Education with a concentration in Disability Studies at Syracuse University.

Pamela Walker, Ph.D. is Research Associate at the Center on Human Policy.

Rachael Zubal-Ruggieri is Information Coordinator at the Center on Human Policy.

We would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Stephanie Lewis and Donna Martinez.

Introduction

Steven J. Taylor, Ph.D.

People with disabilities are present and visible at universities and postsecondary institutions as never before. This reflects changes in societal attitudes, law, public policy, and government programs, and, perhaps most important, the views disabled people have of themselves. The growing presence of this new “minority” on campus poses challenges to all postsecondary institutions.

How should universities, community colleges, and other educational institutions respond to students with disabilities? Should decisions regarding disabled students be delegated to the Section 504 and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliance officer? As important as Section 504 and the ADA have been-and as important as it is for people with disabilities to have access legal remedies to overcome discrimination, compliance with the law is not enough. It is merely the starting point. As the title of this information package suggests, universities and postsecondary institutions must move “beyond compliance” and adopt new philosophies and approaches regarding students with disabilities.

Why should postsecondary institutions change? One reason is that disabled students will no long accept being viewed and treated as burdens on the campus treasury, accommodated merely to avoid troubles with the law. The disability rights movement, which has been so influential in expanding transportation, housing, and employment options, has spread to campus. Disability “culture,” as reflected in videos, newsletters and magazines, and the arts, has forever changed how people with disabilities view themselves. For younger people especially, disability is no longer a source of shame and stigma; it is a source of pride and solidarity. Disability Studies provides an intellectual foundation for scholarly inquiries on disability as a social and cultural phenomenon and encourages disabled students and faculty to view their “personal” situations as “political” issues.

Yet, the most important reason why universities and postsecondary institutions should change is because the presence and participation of students, faculty, and staff with disabilities on campus enrich the experiences of all members of the campus community. Disability is part of the human experience. Sooner or later, practically all people will be touched by disability directly or indirectly. Especially in a diverse, democratic society, all members on campus benefit from knowing and learning from people who are different than themselves. Through personal experience and direct exposure to disabled persons, students, faculty, and staff learn to question and reject traditional images of pity, burden, and shame widely found in popular culture.

The presence of people with disabilities on campus also leads to the integration of disability into teaching and research in the social sciences, humanities, arts, public communications, and other fields. Disability represents a unique lens through which to study everything ranging from societal stereotyping to cultural representation to social movements to government-community-individual responsibility. Those in the clinical and helping professions can and should learn that disability is not always something that should be cured, corrected, and prevented and that disabled people are more than clients.

This information package contains essays, reprints, and resources designed to assist postsecondary institutions to move beyond compliance and to include disabled persons in all aspects of campus life. It is not intended to provide step-by-step guidelines or to serve as a comprehensive manual on all aspects of inclusion and accommodations. Rather, it is designed to offer some perspectives, strategies, and resources that individuals can use to advocate for the inclusion of people with disabilities at universities and postsecondary institutions. This package uses Section 504 and the ADA as a starting point-not the end point-for discussions of the inclusion of persons with disabilities. The next set of selections addresses various ways postsecondary institutions, faculty, and students can move beyond compliance. The following section describe specific accommodations for disabled people, including a program that involves young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities in campus life. The next section contains reprints of published articles that address different ways in which the visibility of disability on campus can be raised. The final two sections contain brief annotations of published sources and additional resources.

We hope that this information package will encourage and assist others to move beyond compliance at their universities and postsecondary educational institutions.

For students with disabilities to be fully included at postsecondary institutions and for postsecondary institutions to benefit fully from the presence of students with disabilities, campus culture must change.

 

Starting Points

THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT AND SECTION 504 OF THE REHABILITATION ACT: A SUMMARY AND AN ARGUMENT FOR GOING BEYOND THE LAW
By Michael Schwartz, J.D.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 42 U.S.C. §12101 et seq., signed into law on July 26 1990, is a far-reaching, comprehensive civil rights law intended to make American society more accessible to people with disabilities. It is divided into five titles:

Employment (Title I): Employers with 15 or more employees must provide reasonable accommodations to protect the rights of qualified individuals with disabilities in all aspects of employment. These accommodations include providing interpreters and readers, restructuring jobs, altering the layout of workstations, or modifying equipment. Title I applies to the entire gamut of employment practices, including the application process, hiring, wages, benefits, terms and conditions and all other aspects of employment. Medical examinations are highly regulated and cannot be used to screen people with disabilities out. If the person with a disability is qualified for employment, the accommodation does not impose a financial hardship on the business, and the worker’s disability poses no threat to the health and safety of others (or herself), the business must accommodate the worker.
Public Services (Title II): Public services, which include state and local government instrumentalities, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, and other commuter authorities, cannot deny services to people with disabilities and must include them in programs or activities which are available to people without disabilities. In addition, public transportation systems, such as public transit buses, must be accessible to individuals with disabilities. Courts, libraries, public schools and other public entities must ensure that their facilities and programs are accessible to people with disabilities.

Public Accommodations (Title III): All privately owned, privately operated businesses or companies that transact business with the general public must be accessible to people with disabilities. Twelve categories of public accommodations are listed, which include facilities such as restaurants, hotels, museums, zoos, banks, professional offices of doctors and lawyers, grocery stores, retail stores, etc., as well as privately owned transportation systems, all of which must remove architectural barriers and provide reasonable accommodations so that people with disabilities may access their services, programs and facilities as long as the accommodation does not work a undue burden or a fundamental alteration to the program or service. All new construction and modifications must be accessible to individuals with disabilities. For existing facilities, barriers to services must be removed if readily achievable.

Telecommunications (Title IV): Telecommunication companies offering telephone service to the general public must provide telephone relay service to individuals who use telecommunication devices for the deaf (TDDs) or similar devices.

Miscellaneous (Title V): This title includes a provision prohibiting either (a) coercing or threatening or (b) retaliating against the disabled or those attempting to aid people with disabilities in asserting their rights under the ADA. It also provides for attorney’s fees for plaintiffs who prevail under the statute.

The ADA’s protection applies primarily, but not exclusively to “disabled” individuals. An individual is “disabled” if he or she meets at least any one of the following tests:

  • He or she has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of his/her major life activities;
  • He or she has a record of such an impairment; or,
  • He or she is regarded as having such an impairment.

Secondary individuals are protected in certain circumstances including 1) those, such as parents, who have an association with an individual known to have a disability, and 2) those, such as friends or co-workers, who are coerced or subjected to retaliation for assisting people with disabilities in asserting their rights under the ADA. These protections flow from the intent to eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities.

While the employment provisions of the ADA apply to employers of fifteen employees or more, its public accommodations provisions apply to all sizes of business, regardless of number of employees. State and local governments are covered regardless of size.

Section 504: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, 29 U. S. C. § 794, was signed into law in 1973, but its enforcing regulations did not come into force until 1977. Section 504 is a one-sentence law that states,

No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States, as defined in Sec. 705(20) of this title, shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance or under any program or activity conducted by any Executive agency or by the United States Postal Service.

Any program or activity receiving federal funding must, under Section 504, make itself accessible to people with disabilities, and that includes providing reasonable accommodations to ensure access.

This juncture represents an opportunity, in the view of the students of the Beyond Compliance Coordinating Committee at Syracuse University, to argue for “going beyond compliance” with the law. In our view, it is simply not enough to be “in compliance.” These two laws provide plaintiffs with disabilities the tools by which to chip away at the doors of discrimination that keep them out of the mainstream of American economic, social and political life. However, the statistics since 1992, the year the ADA became operative, have not been encouraging. For instance, a study by the American Bar Association of all Title I employment litigation in the federal courts discloses that employers are winning 92% of the time. A recent study shows that the unemployment rate of people with disabilities remains at between 66% and 70%, the same rate at the time the ADA was signed into law. While the ADA represents a major step forward in removing de jure segregation (legal barriers), there is much work to be done to remove de facto segregation (attitudes and biases that work to block people with disabilities from gaining access). The sad truth is that many administrators and employers who see a person in a wheelchair or a deaf person immediately see a financial burden. Instead of seeing a person to welcome into the community of students or workers, they foresee a demand for spending money. Their impulse is to “hold down” the costs, to spend only as much as is needed to bring themselves into minimum (often minimal) compliance with federal law. All they want to do is to be in compliance and nothing more.

These laws represent a beginning point, a starting point for those who are responsible for ensuring access to people with disabilities. Providing an interpreter for a deaf student, a reader for a blind worker or a ramp for a wheelchair user is the first step toward making a place accessible and welcoming for disabled people. It is the minimum required simply to get the disabled person past the gate; what is needed once inside the house are more adjustments to make the house a welcoming and comfortable place.

Decades, even centuries, of discrimination, barriers and prejudice have created a society of exclusion that led Congress to note that historically, society has tended to isolate and segregate some 43 million Americans with disabilities, and, despite some improvements, such forms of discrimination against individuals with disabilities continue to be a serious and pervasive social problem, which is growing as the population ages. Further, as Congress noted, discrimination against individuals with disabilities persists in such critical areas as employment, housing, public accommodations, education, transportation, communication, recreation, institutionalization, health services, voting, and access to public services. Congress also noted that individuals with disabilities continually encounter various forms of discrimination, including outright intentional exclusion; the discriminatory effects of architectural, transportation, and communication barriers; overprotective rules and policies; failure to make modifications to existing facilities and practices; exclusionary qualification standards and criteria; segregation; and relegation to lesser services, programs, activities, benefits, jobs, or other opportunities.

Indeed, census data, national polls, and other studies have documented that people with disabilities, as a group, occupy an inferior status in our society, and are severely disadvantaged socially, vocationally, economically, and educationally. As Congress found, “individuals with disabilities are a discrete and insular minority who have been faced with restrictions and limitations, subjected to a history of purposeful unequal treatment, and relegated to a position of political powerlessness in our society, based on characteristics that are beyond the control of such individuals and resulting from stereotypic assumptions not truly indicative of the individual ability of such individuals to participate in, and contribute to, society.” To combat this legacy of discrimination, Congress announced that America’s goal with respect to people with disabilities is to “assure equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self- sufficiency for such individuals.” The costs of not doing so are too great: “The continuing existence of unfair and unnecessary discrimination and prejudice denies people with disabilities the opportunity to compete on an equal basis and to pursue those opportunities for which our free society is justifiably famous, and costs the United States billions of dollars in unnecessary expenses resulting from dependency and non-productivity.

Full inclusion and equality of opportunity carry social benefits, too. By providing more accommodations and greater equality of opportunity, society enables more disabled people to become employable, and the more disabled people there are in our communities, the more we all become used to the idea of disability. This dovetails nicely with a statistical fact: the graying of America will see an upturn in the numbers of disabled people. As more of us become disabled due to age, we need more than ever the lessons people with disabilities can help us learn. Greater inclusion of people with disabilities in a student body or workforce leads to greater diversity, an important and worthy goal, one endorsed by a majority of the Supreme Court and a number of universities, including the University of Michigan, in matters having to do with race. Why should it be any different for disability?

Finally, law seeks to express social values, and the ADA is an attempt to redress years of exclusion. Nowhere are the institutions of society barred from going beyond the ADA. Simply because the law requires certain steps to remove architectural and communication barriers does not place a restriction on a school or business in working to create greater diversity in its student body or workforce.

 

THE CASE FOR MOVING BEYOND COMPLIANCE

The Beyond Compliance Platform

The Beyond Compliance Coordinating Committee was formed in the Fall of 2001, by a group of doctoral students in the Disability Studies program within the Cultural Foundations of Education department at Syracuse University. Each of these students brought diverse backgrounds and experiences with disability to the program. The commonality of the students’ experiences was their commitment to creating an environment in higher education where students with disabilities would be able to thrive and have equal access to scholarly opportunity in the academy. The group quickly identified that most institutions of higher education look at students with disabilities from a compliance mindset. Institutions, through their Disabled Student Services offices, are legally compelled to compliance with the ADA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. Compliance, however, does not always create an environment in which students can participate equally in the scholarly community. The committee expanded to include graduate and undergraduate students, students with disabilities and allies, and faculty allies. An agenda emerged-to encourage the university to adopt an attitude about student accommodations that goes “beyond compliance” with the law. The following is the platform that the beyond Compliance Coordinating Committee developed, and the ideals upon which this information package is based. While this platform is specific to Syracuse University, we feel that it applies to any postsecondary institution.

  1. Reshaping Syracuse University’s conception of disability: Expanding Syracuse University’s official definition of diversity to include disability:

    Disability is more than just a physical or mental impairment. Accessibility is more than just compliance with federal and state laws. Disability is about the human condition, and the Syracuse University community would be enhanced by a broader conceptualization of disability that calls for inclusion, integration, and equality. Thus, compliance with the law is the starting point, not the bottom line, for the university community, and disability should be included, along with race and gender, in what is defined as a “minority” on campus.

  2. Raising and promoting disability consciousness on campus: Disability is an important aspect of diversity in a university community of scholars, faculty, and students. Inclusion of people with disabilities in the Syracuse University environment provides a learning experience for all and reaffirms the dignity of all human beings. Accordingly, disability should be part and parcel of the university’s dialogue on diversity.
  3. Hiring faculty and staff members with significant disabilities: A pioneering university in the areas of disability studies and special education, Syracuse University should reflect its commitment to these disciplines by hiring and promoting people with significant disabilities as faculty members within departments across the university.
  4. Creating model accommodations exemplifying the university’s commitment to equality of opportunity for students with disabilities: Students with disabilities are entitled to effective reasonable accommodations and should be included in the decision making process. Syracuse University should be committed to providing the latest in technological advances that would enhance access for students with disabilities.

 

 

BEYOND COMPLIANCE: ARTICULATION OF THE ROLE OF DISABLED STUDENT SERVICES ON CAMPUS

by Rebecca Cory

Disabled Student Services (DSS) is an office designated to serve the needs of students with disabilities through a student driven and student centered model that promotes self-advocacy and self-efficacy.

The student is the expert on her experience, the DSS staff member is the expert on the specific campus environment. Together, these two experts pair to facilitate the student’s success. Access to the academic curriculum is the first priority. DSS staff work to facilitate accommodations that serve the student equitably. They know that one accommodation does not fit all students, or even one student in all classes. They treat students as individuals and make decisions based on the individual circumstances in each class. They work as a team with the student, faculty, and appropriate department chairs or support staff to facilitate student learning in each class. DSS staff know that success in a course is not always a passing grade. Sometimes a successful situation is one in which the student learns about his strengths and weaknesses and how to better compensate for them in the future. To this end, the DSS staff member does not do for a student what he can, or could do for himself.

Access to campus life goes beyond the classroom, to the residence hall or off campus apartment, student activities, campus religious and cultural functions, and other extra curricular or co-curricular events. Many ways that DSS staff assist students are low or no cost, and can make the difference between attending classes and having a college experience.

The DSS on campus may be one of the first and most intense contacts a student with a disability has with the university. DSS should represent the philosophy and mission of the university in the best light. There is no expectation that the DSS alone should break down all the access barriers on campus. It should, however, serve as a resource for referral and support for students as they break down the barriers themselves.

There is a fine line between encouraging someone to be independent, and leaving them to sink or swim on their own. Supporting students in self-efficacy involves assisting them in self-reflection that clarifies their needs and improves their ability to articulate those needs. It involves knowing resources on campus for allies and assisting students in seeking out those allies to get their needs met. Promoting self-advocacy involves providing a student with the tools he or she needs to be an advocate, through knowledge of resources, and personal support.

Many departments at a university are already in place that model students centered support. For example, the Office of International Students may assist students with finding housing, choosing classes, understanding the registration process, or finding venues for social interaction. These offices respond to students’ requests with a “can do” attitude, and if they are unable to meet the request, they provide the students with resources necessary to meet the request. The staff in these offices know they are not expected to find the housing or career for the student, but rather to facilitate contact with the appropriate campus resource and provide support to other campus staff members on the intricacies of working with their specific population. They also know how students in similar situations have or have not been successful in the past, and can advise students on the appropriateness of their decisions. A DSS staff member should be knowledgeable about campus resources and known as a campus resource.

An effective DSS office is the facilitator of success for a student with a disability and therefore success of the college and a whole. When the DSS staff understand the importance of each decision to the student who is making it, they can advise and support in the best way possible.

 

ACCOMMODATING BEYOND COMPLIANCE: THE FACULTY MINDSET
by Steven J. Taylor1

My starting point on the issue of accommodations for students with disabilities is the philosophy that we do this not for the students with disabilities, not for compliance, and not for diversity for the sake of diversity, but because universities are enriched by the experiences of students with disabilities. In addition, the subject matter in many courses, many departments, and many disciplines relate directly or indirectly to disability. Students in the social sciences, public policy, law, and certainly the “helping,” applied professions need to know something about disability; they need the perspectives, not just from students with disabilities, but ideally from faculty with disabilities who have personal experiences and bring different perspectives that are more grounded in the real world. In my own experience, discussions in my classes are different when I have students with disabilities in them. The other students are much more sensitive and aware when reading the Davis case or the Rowley case. Students genuinely think differently about Davis when they have a deaf student and sign language interpreters in the class. These experiences only enhance the learning of each student.

There are three major benefits to student accommodations. The primary benefit, obviously, is for the student with the disability, that he or she receives equal access to course content and is able to be evaluated reasonably and fairly. There are secondary benefits that follow the principle of universal design in architecture: the idea being that not just people in wheelchairs benefit from universal architecture, but all kinds of people benefit and the environment becomes more useful and inviting for everyone. I advise a doctoral student who is deaf. He took a very intense course in which he found that sign language interpreters were not an appropriate accommodation. He received and I evaluated the use of CART (Communication Access Real-Time Transcription), a communication system that requires “the use of machine steno shorthand skills to produce real-time text on a computer.” The primary benefit was that the student was able to read the lecture and participate in the class discussions. He also had a transcript of the class that was available immediately. The secondary benefit was to the other class members and the professor. The other students had a transcript against which they checked their notes in order to have a more thorough understanding of the course materials. The professor was able to evaluate his teaching strategies through transcript review and use the transcript to aid in his writing. This particular student does not request CART in all of his courses, only the most intense ones, but in all of his courses, he requires breaks at regular intervals (approximately one per hour), as it aids his cognitive processing when working with interpreters. This primary benefit to the student with the disability benefits the other students in the class as well, as regularly scheduled breaks allow more concentration or focus on the part of all students. The major benefit, though, is that accommodations create an accepting, positive learning and social environment on campus.

Traditionally, the responsibility for accommodations is relegated to offices of disability services (ODS), but this mindset must be changed so that it is everyone’s responsibility to create a positive classroom culture. The following faculty responsibilities for accommodating their students with disabilities, while perhaps not required by the ADA, lend themselves to creating a caring, positive learning environment where people feel they can ask for help whether or not it relates to disability. These examples also provide primary and secondary benefits, which combine to create a positive learning environment on campus.

  • Having readings (or the course reader) available within a reasonable period of time. This not only allows the ODS to have ample time to format materials, but it also benefits those students who want to get a head start on the semesters. Faculty should also be aware of the print quality of readers. Oftentimes readers are scanned for students with visual impairments, and blurry text does not scan effectively. For students with learning disabilities, text quality is very important. The secondary benefit is that all students will learn more effectively with clean readers.
  • Faculty should be thoughtful about people who have either mobility or visual impairments and might arrange transportation for those students. Classmates helping out others who need a ride creates a positive classroom culture.
  • Speak at a moderate pace for interpreters. Be mindful of any tendency you might have to speak quickly and slow down the pace. This slower pace in turn potentially benefits all students’ note taking and comprehension.
  • Provide interpreters with a list of proper names and jargon contained in the class material for which there might not be established signs. “Deinstitutionalization” is the example I always use. The entire class could potentially benefit from such a list, for example, it might aid their note taking.
  • Brief the interpreters before class on what is going to be covered that session, what video might be shown, etc. In turn, this has been helpful to me, as interpreters have occasionally informed me that a particular video was not well captioned. It is helpful to have an open relationship with the interpreters, not only to have the ability to talk with them to orient them to what you are going to cover in class, but also to get feedback from them. It is helpful to periodically ask them, “Am I going too fast?”
  • Use more visual cues when teaching. In point of fact I find it easier to teach when I have overheads. Using overheads makes it much easier to lecture in that I am sure the essential information is made available to them visually. Again, having the information available visually potentially benefits many students in the classroom. The flip side of this, though, is interesting, in that there are some dilemmas when you have a diverse class that includes students with different disabilities; some things-visuals, for example-are extremely helpful for someone who is deaf or has a particular learning disability, but are much more difficult for someone who is blind. I try to be conscious of the fact that when I put up an overhead, I read what is on it for students with visual impairments of potential learning disabilities.
  • As faculty, when we teach we have in our minds categories of what are key points and what is secondary. I have had conversations with students with visual impairments in which faculty have told them (about a visual), “You don’t need to know that” and will not take the time to provide this information. The faculty is not saying, “You are blind and you don’t need to know that,” what they are saying is that this information is secondary, however, that still deprives the student equal access to the content, as a professor can’t necessarily judge what the student might find useful. So even though I think it doesn’t matter if I don’t read this part of the overhead because it contains details that aren’t related to the central point, maybe the student can’t get the central point unless she has those other details.
  • When you show a video, even if the video is mostly talk, it is helpful to have a classmate explain the visuals to a blind or visually impaired student; again, even though it might not be essential to what could be learned from the video, the students’ learning experience is diminished if they do not have equal access to all the content.
  • When something funny happens in class, a gesture or what happens when a student comes in late, it is important to explain why the class is laughing to a student who is blind or visually impaired. This creates a supportive and inclusive classroom culture.
  • We have created a fetish around disability, where somehow students are expected to feel ashamed or stigmatized that they have a disability and we can’t make mention of it. I think it is important that we confront our own potential mistakes and feel comfortable asking the student, “How is it going?” “Are you getting what you need out of this class?” Similarly, with respect to “invisible disabilities,” I state on my syllabus, “If you require any accommodations, talk to me,” which is not saying you have to talk to me, but feel free to talk to me and if I can be more accommodating, whether or not ODS would call that an accommodation, let me know. That is not to say anything goes. There are certain things students must do to get the essential part of what is being taught. I can’t waive certain requirements, students have to do the readings, together we have to figure out ways to make this happen. I have had students approach me over the years who were not identified as having a disability; however, some of their learning needs are not all that different from students with disabilities when it comes to their writing, how they process information, or even how they take humor. Students who don’t have identified disabilities have some of the same issues, and I have to be responsive.
  • More and more students who have disabilities that require innovative accommodations are entering universities. For example, they may be sensitive to lighting or smells or have difficulty with social interaction. Marc Gold’s motto was “Try another way.” If a person doesn’t learn using this type of technique, come up with another type of technique. I have been working with one student with a developmental disability doing an independent study reading course for years and it is a constant struggle to figure out how to meet his needs and to make sure he learns what he should from the independent study. He is very concrete and wants to know what he should get out of the readings, what he should be looking for, but for a graduate degree it is essential to read and analyze material, but not with forced choice true-false answers, even though that might be what is more helpful for him. At this point he is having a tough time reading, and as this is a reading independent study, I am trying to come up with alternatives, trying to find videotapes that cover concepts that would have been in the readings as an accommodation. I am still trying to find the balance between being too open ended without being so closed ended that it is defeating the purpose of learning. Fortunately, he likes corresponding by email and I can readily email him long responses he needs. Email is much better for him, as personal interaction may be uncomfortable for him. I am a firm believer that certain things cannot be taught through distance education. But some students find that interactions in group situations is sensory overload.
  • Faculty should be aware of and sensitive to the fact that students with disabilities can spend months and months at universities totally alone. Freshmen are coming right out of high school, and there is a time of adjustment to new content, a different social life, being away from family, in addition to addressing disability issues. Faculty should understand and convey to students that they are not alone, are not off the wall, are not unreasonable, and do not have to feel ashamed or stigmatized.

What has been exemplary and motivating at the Syracuse University campus is the Women’s Studies department. The faculty views Women’s Studies not only as an academic area, but also understands it in the realm of political and social activism. Women’s Studies has to be concerned about sexual harassment, women’s safety, and various inequities that women face. This is my vision of what faculty and academic programs should be: it is not just enough to study the issues, but to do something about them. One cannot ignore what is going on in one’s own backyard, for example, the School of Education at Syracuse University has literally fought battles in school districts around inclusion. Of course, one is limited when one works for an organization, especially junior faculty who are coming up for promotion tenure. Junior faculty have limited abilities to stick their necks out, but if nothing else, it is important to communicate to students with disabilities-and all students-that they are not alone.

Faculty members see themselves as advisors, and I have known advisors to bend over backwards to help students, but when I have personally tried to involve them in advocacy work for a student with a disability, they refused. They see the problem and they sympathize with the student, but they don’t want to take a stand. Faculty should be allies and advocates willing to advocate personally in meetings, to sign letters, or support their classes to act as advocates.

If I can be a more effective professor for a student, I will accommodate my students. I don’t care if it is a disability issue or not. The bottom line is that a person becomes a professor to help students learn and sometimes that means that the in order to help a student learn, compliance with the law is not enough. Sometimes the bottom line is beyond compliance.

 

WHY BEING AN ALLY IS IMPORTANT
by Valerie Smith

Throughout my life, I have had many friends and colleagues who have disabilities. We have shared classrooms as students and as instructors, and we have shared countless community experiences. In each setting, I often witness my friends and colleagues receiving the same acceptance and respect that every citizen expects from society. I also see many instances of misunderstanding, paternalism, exclusion, and oppression directed toward these same individuals. At these times, I am aware of the differences between how the world sees me, a person with no apparent disability, and my peer, who is marked in some way that others find important enough to merit different treatment. We all sometimes find ourselves in the role of ally to our friends, and one might argue that it is unnecessary to discuss this role as being any different in relation to people with disabilities. However, I believe that, until my peers with disabilities receive the same good, bad, or indifferent reception that I receive, rather than treatment based solely on their disability status, I need to be clear about my role as an ally. Part of this role requires that I be clear with others, including students, staff, faculty, and administrators, about why I believe that people with disabilities must receive the support necessary to fully participate in the University community. And part of this role also requires me to act in ways that support, rather than speak or act for, my colleagues and friends.

Why we need our colleagues in our classrooms

By sharing their perspectives with those of us without disabilities, and by allowing us into their daily lives, our colleagues with disabilities enrich our classroom and community experiences and add to our understanding of society and social justice. For example, I have a colleague who needs texts and printed materials in alternative formats, and these were not always provided to her in time (or, in many cases, at all). By watching her negotiate with the office responsible for providing necessary adaptations, and by observing the consequences of her not receiving things in time, I see first-hand how our laws (in this case, the ADA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act) is interpreted and applied at the local level. I have also learned a lot about time management and organization from watching her supervise different paid support people who help her use the library, access research and course materials, and perform other necessary tasks.

Having peers who have disabilities adds to the depth of our education in ways that no instructor, gifted as she or he is, can do in the classroom. Most students in the classes I take have a particular interest in disability issues. I believe, however, that the value of knowing peers with disabilities is not limited to students in disability-related programs. Students in every program gain valuable insight by studying and sharing everyday lives alongside peers whose experiences might seem different from their own, whether that peer comes from another culture, or country, or has a disability. As our society grows in diversity, so should our campuses, and so should our understanding of the value of diversity. Although we live, work, and study in the same environments as my peers, my peers’ experiences in these environments are often different from my own, and I learn a lot about society through their eyes. For example, my friend Bill uses a wheelchair and an electronic communication device that others notice when we’re out in public. Physical accessibility, attitudes of others (we often find ourselves the center of unwanted attention from others), and graceful but effective ways of making sure one’s rights are being respected (Bill is a master at gently re-directing a person’s attention to him, despite that person’s preference for talking to him through me) take on new dimensions when Bill and I go out.

Our peers bring accommodations to our everyday environments that enrich all our experiences. For example, I cannot follow a discussion in class if class members are interrupting and speaking over each other. One of my colleagues uses a sign language interpreter, which requires that we take turns speaking in class. This provides us all with the opportunity to fully hear each other’s ideas, to slow our own voices down (and hopefully to think before speaking) and to respect each other’s ideas. Others may require auditory narration of videos, graphic representations of lecture topics, or class notes from the instructor, and all of us in the class benefit from these adaptations. Our peers add value to our classes in ways unrelated to their disability status; for example, my Deaf colleague is also a lawyer, activist, and expert on Marxism. Finally, our peers with disabilities provide much-need role models for students, faculty, and employees of our institution. They demonstrate that, given equal opportunity and respect, people with disabilities contribute to society in important and, often, in unique ways.

Why we need our colleagues as fellow instructors

I co-teach an undergraduate seminar with a colleague who has autism. He uses typing rather than speaking to communicate, and has a number of other characteristics not usually found at the front of the typical university classroom. The students in our class benefited in many ways from having him as an instructor. First, he was able to present a perspective, and to ask hard questions, that I could not. After our first day of class, for example, he asked our students how they were going to describe him to their friends when they got home! This question forced students to reflect on their own stereotypes and assumptions about people with autism. Second, having this man as an instructor disrupted their old ideas about how competent people look and behave. It also provided them with sustained, ongoing opportunities to learn and practice skills developing relationships with, and accommodating for, people who don’t communicate verbally or who have other characteristics not common in current classrooms. The spaces of silence required as he typed his comments and questions to the class gave students time to reflect upon the topic of discussion. Finally, we provided a model for our students through our interactions with each other. Our mutual respect for and enjoyment of each other demonstrated to our students that people like us really aren’t so different after all.

Why it is important for us to be allies

The university I attend prides itself on being student-centered, which I interpret as reflective of the consumer-driven ethic that permeates our culture. We students, in effect, are customers. When I reflect upon the rationales guiding practices that exclude or dismiss my University colleagues, I try to imagine the arguments used to justify exclusion. For example, I have heard it argued that students with disabilities require “extra” work from instructors, and that some of the accommodations they require to participate are expensive. I suppose that these arguments, in a student-centered framework, presume that their value as student is somehow either less than mine, or maybe not as cost-effective. Perhaps the argument is similar to that heard in some public school districts about students with disabilities being in general classrooms–that they “take away” from the education of students without disabilities. Do students with disabilities consume more than their “fair share” of the resources? What do we mean by “fair share”? Can we, or should we, evaluate an individual’s potential worth in financial terms? If not, how do we assign value against which to determine the “cost?”

As a consumer of the resources available at this student-centered university, I want to be clear about my own position on the concepts of “fair share” and “value.” First, I don’t believe that my education, or my potential to contribute to the post-university world, is more valuable than that of my colleagues who have disabilities. In fact, as members of an under-represented and long-oppressed group, they have insights to contribute that I cannot. Not only do I want their input in my own education (their value to me as a university consumer), I want their input in my world (their value to society in general). Second, as to the “extra” time and expense of their accommodations, I again maintain that we all gain from having these in our classes. They are not just accommodations for our colleagues; they are our accommodations for all of us. Instructors are called upon to teach in ways that reach all learners, not just those whose best learning comes from listening to three hours of nonstop lecture. This helps instructors use, and model, better teaching pedagogy. This also makes their courses more rich, accommodating, and interesting to all students. Finally, it gives us access to the ideas that our colleagues contribute to the class. I believe the “cost” of these elements cannot be calculated in monetary terms, or, at least, not assigned solely to my colleagues for whom those accommodations are developed. All of us share the cost because all of us share the benefits. In the end, I believe that the “share” my colleagues contribute is at least as valuable as the share they require.

What does it mean to be an ally?

As allies, we demonstrate that we respect and value our friends. Sometimes we do this indirectly and other times we use very direct means. As allies, we have to think carefully about our ally role before we act. Being an ally is an important, but tricky, thing. It is not the same as being an advocate, and, in many ways, it is a harder role to take on. Most of us would feel much better if we could speak out for our friends in the face of the disrespectful and dismissive treatment they receive. But this means usurping their right (and ability) to speak for themselves, and reinforces an idea many in society already have–that people with disabilities are somewhat helpless or incompetent and need others to protect them. It also presumes that we know what they want or need. None of these are helpful positions for us to take as allies.

To me, being an ally means asking my friend how I can best support her or him. It might mean that we brainstorm together about how to address particular issues. It might mean that I support them as they protest the unequal treatment they receive. Sometimes I do the busy work that allows them to more fully participate. Lately, it has meant that I join with a larger group of colleagues with disabilities and allies to address “bigger picture” issues on our campus. It often means that I, through my own words and actions, show others why I want and need my friend to be in the same classroom or community setting as me. Always, it means that I respect their right to speak and act on their own behalf.

 

ADVICE TO PEER SUPPORTERS
by Eugene Marcus

My friends, thank you for deciding to be supporters, and thank you for being peers and not bosses or role models. Bosses are a dime a dozen in our lives, and role models are people we choose, not ones who choose us. But peers are just what we need.

Peers are people who are in the same boat as we are, and who are our equals. That means people who must follow the same foul rules that we do, and who have ways of coping that we need to know about. Role models are expected to be perfect, but peers can fumble and make mistakes just like we do. Peers are fully human, and that welcomes us to be our fully human selves. Do not think you confuse us by telling us about your mistakes and failures. Those things are what makes us feel close to you. Never fear making us less than perfect. We have already mastered that before you came along. And don’t worry about being a bad influence. We all watch TV and have enough bad influences already.

All we need from you are three things: time, respect, and information. Time is obvious, and the more the better. We mostly have way too much free time. Respect is not so observable as time, but is more important and not easy to establish if it is not there to begin with. My definition of respect is when one person assumes there is just as much chance that I am right as that he is. Good peer support is always from people who are eager to learn and that means people who don’t mind being wrong a lot of the time. My sense of humor is always tickled by watching people who think they are perfect not succeed and then still think they’ve got to keep being perfect anyway. Respect means not getting stuck in that silly dangerous place.

The third thing our supporters provide us with is information. Most typical people have information I would give anything for, but that is not what they want to share with us “monsters.” I use that word because I think of Frankenstein and his monster. He is a good example of what happens when you try to control how another person grows and learns. Really, monsters are made with the good intentions of wise doctor Frankenstein to make a perfect man. Because each person needs a different set of facts to base his or her decisions on, each person also makes work for the support people to find out what pieces are missing. Not everyone needs to know what time it is, but some people base their whole lives on that fact. Not everyone needs to know how to ask politely for a bathroom, but some people have used gestures that got them in big trouble. And not everyone cares about football, but some people have opened doors to friendship with Super Bowl comments. So what information do you peer supporters have that we need? My guess is that if you want to find out, we can tell you if you ask us. If that doesn’t work, give us some choices. Real support will include lots of stories about you and your friends and your loves and your parents. And real support will help us in ways that will amaze you both.

Accommodations for Students with Diverse Needs

ACCOMMODATIONS FOR BLIND AND VISUALLY IMPAIRED STUDENTS
AT THE POSTSECONDARY LEVEL:
A DIALOGUE BETWEEN
JAGDISH CHANDER AND CHERYL SPEAR

 

Jags: Cheryl, you have just written a paper talking about issues concerning blind and visually impaired students at the higher education level–wow, we need to take care of some of the very subtle things, which we experience with the accommodation processes.

Cheryl: Yes, those descriptions I e-mailed to you were some of my initial thoughts regarding the needs of students at the postsecondary level, who live with sight impairments. In any case, I believe our conversation today will take up some of those thoughts, Jagdish, What are your initial thoughts on the topic?

Jags: Well, we all need accommodations in some way or other. Yet, due to some sort of visible or invisible disability, some accommodations are considered “special.”

Cheryl: True to the nature of their specialness, those accommodations and the folks who use them, have as a result of this need the experience of living with unforgivable labels. Just because a person wishes to understand the characters on a page which they experience as untranslatable, or to hear what is being spoken, or see that which is being written, or write down what is on their minds, the accommodations that would certainly satisfy any of these need are called “special” and thus may be denied her or him because these persons are given the label slow and retarded.

Still, every person living needs to be considered as having both similar and particular needs in order to interact with their different environments. Think for a moment. When people ask that the quality of CDs be improved for a more crystallized sound, they are asking for a technological accommodation. As well, when someone asks that a lecturer make use of the microphone or sharpen the viewer on the overhead projector, they are asking for a series of accommodations and adaptations due to an inability to hear or see. Or, when people ask for a glossary at the end of a text that has different language or symbols or rely on spell check, they too are being accommodated. Clearly, neither of these person’s request deserves the label “special,” nor do they need or want the stereotypes that define them. What may be understood here is that individual needs do vary across a wide continuum and so do accommodations requested and received in order to satisfy such diverse needs.

Jags: The problem of accommodations for a particular group of students, the blind or visually impaired, is a relatively complex one.

Cheryl: The range of seeing is great.

Jags: Yes, of course. For instance, there are various categories of blind students namely: blind, visually impaired, legally blind, low vision and so forth. Within these categories are still other differences. Two students with a similar loss of vision might have different ways of seeing and thus different daily needs for accommodations; for example, a totally blind student who acquires blindness during her or his adulthood in most cases does not find her or himself very comfortable in reading a great volume of literature in Braille. By contrast, someone who has been reading Braille since childhood would find large volumes of text welcoming. Therefore, it is erroneous to prescribe singularily one particular form of accommodation for students with visual loss.

Cheryl: I came into the conversation about appropriate accommodations for the visually impaired when, what was then called Adaptive Technology (AT) was beginning to be explored as a viable resource for our population’s academic needs. As a result of coming to the technology late in my academic career, I have now entered my fifth year of doctoral studies heavily relying on the skills of Readers/Research Aids. This is not to say that I did not have some remedial skills to use AT, or, the skills to use audio recorded text, or, the skills to read Braille. What having this many skills meant was that I had to do so much memory work. So much so, that these skills collided with the memory work I had to do in order to perform well within and outside the classroom. Besides, as I recall Braille became cumbersome even though I was proficient in Grade Two Braille that is its contracted form.

Jags: Yes, Cheryl. Louis Braille invented Braille in the first half of the nineteenth century, and Braille remained the primary source of having access to information for hundreds of years. The invention of tape-recorders enabled blind people to have speedy access to information and it speeded up the process of storage of information through recorded texts. Thus, Braille was supplemented with the recorded texts on tapes. Then, the invention of computers and the development of access technology (which was earlier described as “assistive technology” or “adaptive technology”) revolutionized the process of storage and access to information.

For those who are proficient in the latest technology, availability of the text in the e-format (electronic text) is definitely most preferred, but, it does not eliminate the importance of Braille or the recorded text on tape. In other words, one form of accommodation may be preferred in a particular situation, but, that does not make the other forms of accommodation redundant and so nothing should be taken for granted as “the only form of accommodation.” The form of accommodation should depend upon the requirements of the student, depending upon her or his skills of using Braille or audio books or books in e-format among many other possibilities for accessing printed and electronic text.

Cheryl: Proficiency in the earlier as well as the latest technologies is an important consideration in creating accommodations that will actually support students with disabilities in their academic studies. But, I know there are additional academic concerns to be considered alongside that of proficiency.

For example, the work of being a student requires multiple tasks besides that of reading and writing. At our level of academic achievement, we must begin to enter the spaces where we can engage with the scholarship that has already begun and is ongoing; that is, gain access to the scholarship within our particular fields of study. To do this, we must go into the corridors of libraries, resource centers, lecture halls, science laboratories, and so forth. As you well know, to physically enter spaces where knowledge is available is but one accomplishment. Another accomplishment would be to enter such spaces and have this available information be made accessible to us. Let me give you two instances of what I am talking about.

In the library when I am conducting “first level” research and I want just to browse in order to assess and access what has already been written I get into big trouble. Once I move past the basement of the Bird Library, and approach the first, second, or third floors, the knowledge within those corridors there becomes prohibitive. On what shelves can I find my books? What are the possible range of topics may I explore? How will I retrieve the books from the shelves? How will I know if the table of contents or the Introduction of a selected text covers my broad area of interests?

In another instance, at the Society for Disability Studies conference we attended in June 2002, I received a Braille copy of the conference schedule and program. But I found I could not read the Braille lettering. Now, I must admit I had the Braille program turned upside down the whole time. Yet, the point I wish to make is that the Braille print was so bad that I could not discern upside down or top side up, its characters. In either situation, entering the library corridors and the conference hall, I gained access to printed text only because a human person, in the form of a Reader/Research Aide was there to provide visual supports.

Jags: Yeah, I mean, dependence on other people can be minimized with the maximization of the use of the assistive technology and with the ability of creating material in accessible format. To some extent, the role readers or role of human help is always needed and needed not only for students with disabilities, its needed for everyone in some form or other actually. So that would remain to some extent. But then the point is, to what extent can that be minimized to make it, to make a student with disabilities as much independent, as much as possible?

Cheryl: I wonder, to consider the question of independence versus that of dependence is a topic for which we would need another conversation. Here, in the North American social and political contexts, one form of behavior is clearly privileged over the other depending on a host of conditions. For instance, dependence becomes gendered and disability scripted when the persons described in this way is either female or requires human services to accomplish daily activities or perhaps both.

So as not to entirely close this conversation about utilizing readers as a viable accommodation, I’d like to add another comment. In general, making use of support persons, which includes readers, requires a lot of independent negotiating and strategizing on the part of the student. But these skills typically are not acknowledged or valued by service providers, counselors and professors, those persons concerned with our academic output. Therefore, the connections that readers/support persons and students make must be so concise. It must be the case that the work that gets accomplished comply with the academic standards set by the university. Sometimes, just knowing how to make appropriate decisions and communicate with those who support us becomes a move towards greater “interdependency.”

For example, I worked with someone today and she said, “You know sometimes I don’t know which direction to go when I’m doing library research for you.” I responded in a light manner, “Yeah, it’s all a guess. You can’t read what’s in my head.” And, if we had more to go on, like we had telepathy or something that would be great, but we don’t. And she said, “Well you know, all we have between us is good communication yeah and all we have is the faith in each other that we’ll hear each other’s requests and concerns.” And I thought that was real important because that’s what we have. And that’s the only way we are going to get the work done.

Jags: Accommodations must be tailored to meet both general and specific needs of the student. Apart from the efficiency and skill of a student to use a particular form of accommodation, the form of accommodation should also depend upon the context. For example, a student might prefer to get his or her books in e-format when it comes to the voluminous books. But if he or she is attending a conference, it might be preferable to have the program in Braille rather than getting it in e-format. Similarly, in case of the readings for the class, the texts, which need to be read, in advance it might be preferable to have them available on tapes or e-format (depending upon the preference of the concerned student). However, if there is a handout, which needs to be read along with other students in the class, it might be preferable to have it in Braille so that one can read it at the same time with the other classmates.

Hence, there cannot be a clear, black and white picture of accommodations for the blind and the visually impaired students. It will be not proper to say that this is what is needed and this is what is not needed actually. It has to be taken into account depending upon the skills of the students whose going to be using these accommodations. What he or she is more equipped to deal with. At the same time, it would also depend upon the contexts in which these accommodations are being used.

Cheryl: Without consideration of the context in which an accommodation will be used, the possession of that accommodation can become virtually meaningless. Jagdish, you continue to assert that, “the skill of the student when using an accommodation must also be taken seriously.” Yes, you and I agree about the necessity for students to have an adequate amount of training with access technology in particular before we began to assimilate it into our academic work. I know this competency we are describing has been called “Readiness.”

You know I see problems in accessing technology for students with disabilities. One of the major problems is that the technology changes so quickly. We are easily behind our colleagues, a good six months or more. Mainstream and adaptive technologies are in a battle to achieve compatibility with each other. And we remain in the middle of that confusion. I mean it’s six months by default. Not to mention that even with the compatibility issue being addressed, Colleges’ and Universities inability to become informed about the new technologies in order to bring them forward does not set well with the work that must get done by us. Such consistent delays result in an unfortunate lag for students with disabilities.

But then another issue that must get attention is learning. Jagdish, I know you taught me something about becoming immersed in the operation of the technology and being with it alone. That is, not necessarily working with the technology in context with academic work, although the contextualization helps to reinforce the learning of the technology. I’ve been listening to the tutorial tapes and it’s a lot of memory work. There’s no doubt in my mind that if one already has a lot of coursework to do in addition to learning the keyboard commands that literally drive our access to the multiple screens within, no less, a Windows/viewing environment, is nearly impossible. It becomes complicated and it slows down all learning processes. Either the learning, the contextual learning gets slowed down or the academic work gets slowed down.

Jags: Yeah that lags behind.

Cheryl: Yeah that lags behind so we have a problem here. One of my colleagues, who’s a damn good technology specialist and he’s totally blind, said, “Cheryl, one of the things I’d like to see you do is look at the issue of `readiness’ for students who come into the academy in terms of their ability to effectively use the technology.” He said, “We try to train them but we only give four to eight, weeks of training at the most.” And we know that when the folks with sight impairments leave the technology centers, they are not prepared to use the technology at their colleges or universities. But it’s what the state allows. And so we need to find another way to make sure that students are more technologically literate and ready when they leave our centers. But will they get into the academy somewhere in-between? Ready but not really ready? Because once you get into the academy there’s no space to learn.

Jags: I agree. I somehow find myself slightly fortunate that I first tried to make myself comfortable with technology and then came to this school. Otherwise I don’t think I would be able to keep up. It took me an entire three months altogether, full-time, day to night, to be fully computer trained, in terms of computers in general–learning the basics of computers and then the use of assistive technology.

So, if I had to spare these three months now, I would never be able to do it in the next five years during my Ph.D. I can never take all those months off now. And, well that’s about the basics, that even now actually if I could keep up I would be very happy to take a month off and really concentrate on making myself updated on technology. Though my knowledge, when I came I had the upgraded knowledge of technology a year ago actually. But this one year has again made so much more difference and I would really be happy to take one month’s break and update myself and that becomes a challenge for blind students or students with disabilities who are using assistive technology. Because the technology is moving so fast, the challenge for us is to keep up with the work or keep up with the technology. This definitely complicates the pursuit of academic work, and I understand, Cheryl, you joined this work first, and then you got into the technology. For me, it would be impossible to keep up with that. You would really require so much time to get out of it. You know just to get into it was a quite frustrating process start with, the three months was really dedicated to learning the skills of computer and JAWS.

Cheryl: But, in order to learn the technology, students must have the commitments and support of both community and university members who will open up opportunities and spaces to experience new learning, which is another layer added to the general technology discussion. I know that universities as educational centers or as institutions of higher learning can help to support our connection to access technologies in different ways. Furthermore, they can bridge the gap between themselves and community agencies in meaningful ways in order to provide necessary supports. Now in terms of, helping to make that connection to community, universities must consider the following: one, take an interest in the agencies like VESID and CBVH have technologies in their inventories. The technologies used in the home/ community could then be duplicated within the academic context. Two, universities could share with agencies their few, but skilled specialized technologists. Three, agencies could conduct “first level” trainings while the university conduct “advanced level” technology trainings.

Unfortunately, my experience in the first two to three years as a doctoral student was that I was trying to explain what I didn’t know. But also I became part of the university’s experiments. Maybe the technologies would work and maybe they would not? And I would have to just wait to see if the adaptive technology would cause the network failure. So much of our success in getting universities to institute the technology depend on our use of it, whether it is in poor or good working condition. We are the experimenters in computer development and design, the Beta Testers as it were. Our understanding of how configurations. Of the hard and software work at various levels is critical.

And so, someone who could just come in, and I’ve been around a few skilled and trained technicians who can come in and who can look at the system and can identify, pretty soon where the concerns are and where they need to make some adjustments to the system or viable recommendations to the administration. So I know that’s another way. The university can help support students with disabilities to connect with access technology by creating demonstration sites where we’re able to, where they are able to seriously problem solve with the technologies upfront. That is, where they can work on the computers first and then download everything to the network and then the students can use them. So the students are never involved behind the scenes in the problem-solving phase and they’re never involved in the actual implementing phase of the general technology installations, upgrade and maintenance. It should be ready for them; it is a part of the contract that comes with being a student here at the university.

Jags: I guess the point that you are trying to emphasize here is that one of the accommodations is that technology needs to be kept updated. There should be a strong technical support in terms of having the people who are skilled to be with assistive technology which is generally missing in most universities. Especially in our university, it has been missing so far. And when you talk about accommodations, you know accommodations in general as you were saying, when anything new comes up it’s downloaded on the network and every student has access to it. A student doesn’t have to be bothered by it, whether it’s going to be broke or not. If a student gets stuck, there is a technical staff to take care of it. The only thing that the technical staff of the university would know is how to install the software, nothing beyond that if anyone is stuck, they’re not in a position to help in the process. And that’s a lack of the commitment of the university to ensure accommodation. Because accommodation will not mean just getting the software, but also to take care of the problems in the software. So, where do we go to take care of these problems, really?

Jags: Actually, that’s the thing. So it’s your problem. Either you make it or you just keep quiet.

Cheryl: From the time that I’ve been here there has been literally no one who has known how to effectively intervene. How I got through was involving myself in with what is has been termed “communities of practice.” Within this community framework people who I work with literally help me get information and skills through their own experience with the general technology. And so it’s a practice that is voluntary and that has been reinforced over and over again…. In terms of faculty, I know what’s important is that faculty at some point in their career, if they should have but one student with a disability, they should be in active consultation with that student about their accommodations to access technology. If they only meet once or twice, it’s worthwhile because if for God’s sake the technology is not coming through, well then faculty too are affected. They are affected by the quality of the work of that student. For sure, faculty do not get to see the progress that they intended on witnessing through their student.

And the faculty is one of the better advocates. They have some power within their departments. At the very least you know they can say, “I want my student to have equality in my classroom.” They can also petition to the university who can in turn intervene in the process. But somehow many faculty feel removed from the process totally. And so when the student is in crisis, they don’t understand what to do and they don’t know where to go. And by that time it’s too late.

Jags: It is a well-known fact that millions of Americans, who are more than fifty years old, do not find themselves very comfortable with computers and they remain computer illiterate. Does that mean that these people in the older generation should be deprived of the access to information? This generation of people has the equal right to have an access to the information even if they are not comfortable with computers in this era of I.T. revolution. This category of people will require accommodations and one of the major accommodations that they need is that they would need the information and the literature in the alternative format than the one in e-format.

Similarly, in the context of accommodations for blind and the visually impaired students, we need to recognize that technology has been changing or developing rapidly. While they have the right to have an access to the accommodations made possible through the latest developments in the technology, no particular form of accommodation should be imposed.

 

OnCampus AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY
by Valerie Smith

For the past two years, a partnership between Syracuse University’s School of Education and the Syracuse City School District has brought several city school students who are between the ages of 18 and 21 and who have a variety of developmental disability labels to the SU campus. These city school students audit classes, work, and socialize every day alongside their University peers. Most people can easily imagine the benefits of this arrangement to the city school students. For example, city school participants have the opportunity to learn in classes to which they wouldn’t otherwise have access, to practice social skills with same-aged peers who don’t have disabilities, and to spend each day in the same environments and having similar experiences as their same-aged peers. What is equally important to recognize is that the University community, including students, staff, and faculty, also benefit from having the OnCampus students as a daily presence at Syracuse University.

Benefits to the SU Community

OnCampus students add to the diversity at the University. They help us broaden the definition of diversity from the traditional boundaries of ethnicity, religion, and sexual orientation. They provide us with opportunities to learn the value of many kinds of diversity. OnCampusstudents provide the campus community with opportunities to question old ideas about who belongs in higher education. They show us that, given adequate support, they are successful students, friends, and members of the University community. They cause us to examine ideas about social justice and the meaning of disability labels in society.

OnCampus students show us the many ways that competent people look, behave, and communicate. They help us develop skills conversing with people who don’t speak, or who communicate in unique ways. They help us learn how to develop relationships with people who seem quite different from us. They help us learn that there are many important ways that we are all the same.

OnCampus students help faculty think differently about how, and who, they teach. OnCampus students bring the class a variety of [not curricular, but more like strategies, I can’t find the word] adaptations that demonstrate innovative ways to teach all students. They make unique contributions that add to the richness of the course for all students. They demonstrate the many ways that competent students look, behave, and communicate. They demonstrate to faculty that learning, and intelligence, are expressed in many ways.

 

TO CART OR NOT TO CART…? A BRIEF FOR STENOGRAPHIC TRANSCRIPTION
by Michael A. Schwartz and Steven J. Taylor
January 2003

Background

Imagine yourself staring at a single focal point for three hours, with two five-minute breaks during that time. Imagine a stream of information flowing through that focal point toward you. Imagine concentrating on receiving that information in one language and mentally translating it to another language. Imagine formulating a response in your mind, then finding the right words in another language to express that response, all the while still processing the stream of information continuously flowing through the focal point of your concentration. Imagine all that, and you’re close to visualizing the experience of a deaf student sitting with a team of two sign language interpreters, receiving the information in a complex and difficult academic class that meets for three hours once a week. It is a fatiguing, draining, and not very efficient process of learning.

I have been profoundly deaf since birth. My first language was spoken English; I did not grow up with sign language, whether American Sign Language (ASL) or Signed English. I did not use sign language interpreters in an academic setting until I was 25 years old and a first-year law student. In the three years of law school, my classes were no more than one hour long. Given the one-hour duration, I could process the information and glean something from class, despite my fatigue.

However, when I entered the doctoral program in the Cultural Foundations of Education, a program within the School of Education, at Syracuse University in the fall of 2001, I discovered that all of my courses were three-hour classes that met once a week. As a Disability Studies major, I took a number of courses in disability-related areas. Having worked as a disability rights attorney, I was familiar with the material, and the pace of the classes was moderate so that despite my fatigue from the three hour classes, I could follow and participate in the discussion with the aid of interpreters.

One class, however, was a different story. It was a course in Marxist cultural studies taught by Professor Don Mitchell who spoke rapidly, asked many questions, and pushed us long and hard during our three hours together. Professor Mitchell’s teaching style was Socratic; he liked to fire questions, stimulating a rapid and free-wheeling discussion. The material was conceptually difficult, completely unfamiliar to me, and every week I left class exhausted and frustrated. Despite two breaks, I found myself struggling not to tune out after the second hour. After the first hour with the interpreters, my ability to process information declined. By the third hour, I found myself working very hard to stay focused on what the interpreters were signing. This fatigued me even more. It was hard not to daydream. I estimated that I missed up to 40% of the discussion because of fatigue. Indeed, I was shocked to receive the notes from a class notetaker:

I’ll tell you what is real: my amazement in realizing from the notetaker’s notes one night that I could not, for the life of me, recall the interpreters conveying that information that was appearing in the notes. I read the notes carefully, and based on a rough estimate I figured that about 40% of the notes were new to me (Schwartz E-mail to Dr. Taylor, 3/10/02).

It became quite obvious to me that the process of interpreting three hours of rapid-fire discussion involving complex and difficult material has its limits.

From my perspective, reading signs (translating the signs into English in my head) requires cognitive effort, which, over three hours, with short breaks, degrades my ability to grasp complex information. This is a big source of mental fatigue. According to an E-mail message I sent Dr. Taylor:

I spend my time processing signs into English and thinking over the concepts. It is a lot of work, and with sign interpreters the margin for responding is razor thin. It is like trying to jump aboard a fast train while holding a tray with a raw egg on it. CART, on the other hand, presents to me the written English inside a screen; I don’t have to do any translating, I can get right into the meat and potatoes of the ideas, and the screen is large enough so that I can ponder for approximately 30-45 seconds or check my notes (Schwartz E-mail to Dr. Taylor, 3/11/02).

From the interpreters’ standpoint, most are not expected to be well-versed in, or to master, the subject matter of the course they interpret. They do not learn or study the concepts-and may not understand what is being discussed in class. Interpreting a dense and difficult course can be just as exhausting for the interpreter.

The following semester, Professor Mitchell offered a course on Karl Marx’s magnum opus, Capital, and I desperately wanted to take it. Yet, I was deeply concerned about the problem of fatigue in this course. I wanted to try something new, something different, something with the potential to reduce my fatigue and enhance my learning from class discussion: CART.

CART stands for either “Communications Access Realtime Translation” (U.S. Department of Labor, National Court Reporters Association) or “Computer-Aided Real-time Translation” (Caption Advantage). CART involves in-class (on-site) transcription by a trained court reporter or stenographer using a stenographic machine, a laptop computer, and specialized software, which are provided by the reporter or stenographer. The reporter requires nothing more sophisticated than an electrical outlet. CART can also be provided from a remote location; this, however, would require the hard-wiring of classrooms. 2

According to the National Court Reporters Association, CART is a word-for-word speech-to-text interpreting service for people who need communication access. Unlike computerized notetaking or abbreviation systems, which summarize information for the deaf consumer, CART provides a complete translation of all spoken words and environmental sounds, empowering the consumer to decide for herself what information is important to her. CART consumers include people with hearing loss; individuals with cognitive or motor challenges; anyone desiring to improve reading/language skills; and those with other communication barriers. Caption Advantage, a national company that provides closed captioning and real-time translation, describes CART as an acronym for Computer-Aided Real-time Translation, referring to the use of stenographic shorthand skills to produce real-time text on a computer screen. As Caption Advantage describes it, CART involves a reporter with a notebook computer and a stenographic keyboard, sitting next to a deaf or hard of hearing person. The CART reporter types everything that is spoken (as well as nonverbal conduct), and the screen on the notebook is turned so that the deaf or hard of hearing person can read it. In contrast with a computer keyboard, a stenographic machine is silent. I have seen CART at several national deaf conferences and appreciated the immediate access to real-time English with little or no attendant fatigue. Based on what I saw of CART, I requested the provision of CART services for Professor Mitchell’s class on Marx’s Capital. I foresaw that an in-depth discussion of Marx’s magnum opus would be complex and difficult, and I wanted to test the efficacy of reading the verbatim English dialogue scrolling up on a computer screen. Initially Syracuse University denied my request. The Office of Disability Services (ODS), responsible for crafting accommodations under the law for students with disabilities, rejected my request, claiming that CART would require “hard-wiring” all the classrooms on campus, to the tune of $400,000. ODS also claimed that there were no CART providers in the Syracuse area. I pointed out that I was asking for on-site CART, which did not require “hard wiring,” only an ordinary electrical outlet for the stenographer’s equipment. I also furnished the names of two CART providers in Syracuse. After some internal deliberations within the university administration, the School of Education agreed to provide CART for my Marx course and established it as a pilot study to be evaluated by Dr. Steve Taylor. Dr. Taylor filed an evaluation plan, “How Does Stenographic Transcription Work in a University Course?” 3 Pursuant to the pilot study, a certified court stenographer with experience in the state and federal courts in Syracuse brought her stenographic machine and a laptop to the class and provided me with CART in Professor Mitchell’s class for the duration of the semester. In addition to CART, I had one sign language interpreter in class in order to “voice” for me during class discussions and conversations with the professor and classmates before and after class and during the breaks.

The Educational Benefits of CART

CART offers deaf and hard of hearing students a number of benefits: greater access to and comprehension of class discussion; a verbatim transcript more detailed than the notes of any notetaker in the class; and less stress and fatigue for the deaf student.

Professor Mitchell’s teaching style, highly effective for teaching the course content, was fast-paced and interactive. He worked closely with the textual material, often referring to passages when talking about ideas and asking questions. The students did likewise. I found that sign language interpretation in Professor Mitchell’s class did not lend itself well to this teaching style (e.g., it was extremely difficult to both follow the signing and read text at the same time). With CART, however, I was able to check my notes, review passages in the textbook, jot down ideas, and confer briefly with a colleague sitting next to me, all while keeping tabs on the class discussion. How? The laptop screen was large enough (approximately 20 lines) so that scrolling text remained on the screen long enough for me to read it and do other things. With sign language interpreters, I could not look away for an extended period of time (to look around the room, take notes, refer to textual material, or even rest my eyes) without losing track of the discussion.

The transcripts of the Marx class show that the professor’s class covered material that was intellectually challenging, requiring a high level of concentration on what was being said in “real-time” (i.e., as it was being said). Here is an example:

Professor: So any commodity is its use-value, its exchange value, it is dead labor, it is labor that has been ossified. In the act of production those commodities are given new life. Right? By being used up and transferred into a new commodity. There is a wonderful mystery to all of this, what he is talking about…. [Marx] is always playing with that language in here, but he does want to point out and says it at one point, in fact, at the top of [page] 179, labour uses up its material forces, its subject and its instruments, consumes them, and is therefore a process of consumption (Transcript, 2/11/02).

Highly theoretical and abstract, Marx’s Capital used concepts, words, and proper names that posed a challenge for Anne Messineo, the CART captioner. Accordingly, under the professor’s supervision, I prepared a 14-page “List of Marxist Terms” for Ms. Messineo to include in the dictionary contained within her software so as to improve her ability to type accurately. The list included such terminology as “anarcho-syndicalism,” “Bonapartism,” and “congelation of homogeneous human labor.” There are no accepted signs for these concepts in American Sign Language, and sign language interpretation would require the time-consuming process of fingerspelling each word into English. Take “anarcho-syndicalism,” for example: it is an eight-syllable word, and in the hands of an interpreter, it would take approximately six seconds to fingerspell the word (assuming the interpreter knew how to spell it), but for Ms. Messineo, typing the word would take the same amount of time it took to pronounce it (about two seconds). Put simply, CART entails the ability to capture rapidly word for word the complex discussion, a feat very difficult to replicate with sign language interpreters.

CART transcripts of Professor Mitchell’s class, ranging in length from 75 to 100 pages per class, provided a verbatim record of classroom discussions. The transcripts were posted on Professor Mitchell’s course web site several days after class and were available for review by all students:

Professor: Okay. The first thing to note is if you look to my web page on the department site there is now a thing that says “GEO 500 transcripts.” You can, if you so desire, read the transcript of everything we talked about in here. Not instantaneously, but within a few days after each class. It’s raw, unedited, and so you get to hear us at our most inarticulate…last week’s was a hundred pages, something like that (Transcript, 2/4/02).

Because all the students in my class could access the transcripts, CART benefited for these students who needed to check on a point raised in class. Even those students who missed class had a record of the class discussion. As researcher Aaron Steinfeld points out in an article titled, “The Case for Real-time Captioning in Classrooms,” …the inclusion of captions in a classroom dramatically increases a deaf or hard-of-hearing person’s ability to comprehend the speaker. In addition, providing captions to hearing people also seems to enhance verbal comprehension. The increased comprehension for both hearing and deaf students will likely lead to a better learning environment and improved information transfer between the teacher and the students.

When asked whether any other students made use of the CART transcripts, Professor Mitchell said:

Yes. I know of at least two, plus me. While I do not re-read all of my own words-that would be horrible-I have liked being able to go back and look at how I developed an answer to a particular question…especially since I am working on a chapter right now that relates to some of the things we discuss in class. I know that students look at it before they write their next week’s analytical paper, as a means of reminding themselves of key ideas and issues… (3/13/02).

Even the professor noticed a difference between CART and sign language interpreters:

The most noticeable aspect is how much less tired and more alert Michael is as the class wears on. At the end of two hours of signing, Michael was shattered, and it was apparent that he often more or less checked out for the last part of class. It was just too taxing. This has not been the case with CART. He is as fresh and alert as any of us by the end now. Michael still does not talk as much as I would like him to, but he talks more than he did (Mitchell to Taylor, 3/13/02).

A sign language interpreter who observed me in the professor’s fall and spring courses confirmed this observation:

I have noticed Michael appears to be less “wiped out.” I am assuming that he understands the content better with CART. He is able to rest his eyes and not miss what was said, now that CART captures everything that is said. Watching two interpreters switch ever 20-30 minutes for three hours, in the last course must have been tough (Decker to Taylor, 3/21/02).

This is not to argue that interpreters are not capable or qualified; rather the process of reading signs over three hours breaks down, and I could not remember up to 40% of what had transpired. My mind was tired, and my ability to retain information and to think was a casualty of that fatigue.

Anecdotal evidence from my class suggests that CART may have had a positive effect on the classroom atmosphere. Students expressed great interest in Ms. Messineo’s equipment, with one student exclaiming, “CART is ‘cool’.” Once the professor introduced Ms. Messineo in the first class, the students accepted her as part of the class. Occasionally the professor joked with Ms. Messineo, and because she took it with good humor, everyone was relaxed with her. Indeed, according to the professor, both Ms. Messineo and the interpreter were accepted by students in his class:

The effect is salutary. Very quickly Anne became part of the class, as do interpreters. The difference is that we do not have to back up as frequently to go over a point that an interpreter either may have missed, since interpreting by definition means interpreting (emphasis) or just because interpreting is necessarily fairly slow. Students very quickly begin to take both the interpreter and the transcriber for granted in the class and do not mind when either asks for a clarification (Mitchell to Taylor, 3/13/02).

In short, CART was appropriate for Professor Mitchell’s course on Marx. The difficulty of the material, the rapid-fire nature of the class discussion, the duration of the class session, and the complex vocabulary of the participants established a case for me using CART in Professor Mitchell’s classroom. CART’s ability to capture verbatim English met my need for access to the spoken English, and in doing so, afforded me effective communication access. CART not only reduced my fatigue and enabled me to process the information more readily in class; it also benefited the other students by providing them with a transcript of the class discussion. Everyone benefited from the common bridge of communication supported by CART.

Syracuse University’s Defenses

Like most institutions faced with a novel request for an accommodation, Syracuse University initially resisted the idea of CART. ODS administrators put forth four arguments: first, a request for CART would open the floodgates, leading to a demand for CART from each and every deaf or hard of hearing student; second, the number of CART providers was too small to meet the anticipated demand; third, CART was too expensive; and fourth, there were less costly alternatives such as C-Print technology. I now turn to these defenses.

Defense No. 1: The Floodgate Theory

University administrators argued that arranging CART for one student would open the floodgates, with deaf and hard of hearing students clamoring for CART, thereby draining the school’s budget. This argument is misplaced. For the 2002 spring semester, only two deaf students, an undergraduate in Engineering and me, requested CART. The undergraduate used cued speech transliteration (in contrast to sign language, this is a speech-based communication tool for hearing-impaired people that was developed to make lip-reading easier) in other courses. There was another undergraduate, a user of cued speech transliteration, who expressed an interest in CART services for one or more classes. The problem for these two students was that cued speech transliterators are rare in Syracuse. The two students often went to class without a cued speech transliterator; for them, CART would have filled the void.

The ODS floodgate argument mistakenly assumes that all deaf students think alike, and that all would want CART. A deaf master’s level student about to graduate told me that he preferred sign language interpreters over CART. A deaf graduate student in Business Administration is satisfied with his interpreters. Even I did not demand CART for my other two courses because, as I explained earlier, I knew the material well, the pace was slower, and the interpreters were effective as communicators.

Thus I propose a guideline to help the university determine the appropriateness of CART. In order to decide whether CART would be effective as opposed to sign language interpretation or cued speech transliteration, the university needs to engage in an individually-based assessment of need which would take into consideration the following factors:

  1. The needs of the student;
  2. Other accommodations available to the student; and,
  3. The nature of the student’s classes.

 

For example, the students who would benefit from CART in all their classes would be those who had not yet acquired an alternative communications means such as sign language or lip-reading, with or without cued speech (an example might be someone who experienced severe hearing loss later in life). Another example is a difficult and complex course like my Marx course, for which CART proved effective in documenting the class discussion. Most deaf or hard of hearing students appreciate a mix of accommodations; assuming interpreters and cued speech transliterators are available, students would be satisfied with that kind of accommodation in a class that was short in duration, offered familiar material, and enjoyed a slow to moderate pace. As the ADA stresses, the university has to evaluate CART on a case-by-case basis; there is no room for a floodgate theory that by its very nature ignores the individualized nature of each person’s request.

Defense No. 2: The Low Availability of CART Providers

ODS argued there were no CART providers in the region, and this relieved the university of the obligation to consider CART. Contrary to this claim, because Syracuse is home to a number of state and federal courts, there were a number of CART captioners who were available to work at Syracuse University. The CART captioner in the Marx course knew of two other persons in the Syracuse area who were capable of providing CART services. Instead of making a blanket claim that no one existed to fill the need for CART services, the university had an obligation to research the availability of these CART captioners to Syracuse University. The availability might depend on different factors (e.g., personal considerations, a current commitment to other projects, the possibility of a long-term arrangement with Syracuse University).

Since court stenographers and television closed-captioning transcribers can learn to provide CART in an academic setting, there ought to be a substantial pool of potential CART providers in Central New York. A web search under “Communications Access Realtime Translation” yielded the names of 32 court reporters in the immediate Syracuse area. To provide CART services, a stenographer needs access to equipment and special software. According to Ms. Messineo, a court reporter providing CART in an academic environment like Syracuse University needs to feel comfortable in that kind of environment (most have experience providing stenography in the courtroom).

The Department of Labor predicts that the demand for real-time translating and broadcast captioning will result in employment growth of court reporters. Not only does federal legislation mandate that by 2006 the captioning of all new television programming for the deaf and hard-of-hearing; the ADA gives deaf and hard-of-hearing students in colleges and universities the right to request access to real-time translation in their classes. Both of these factors are expected to increase demand for trained stenographic court reporters to provide real-time captioning services. 4

Defense No. 3: The High Costs of CART Services

Syracuse University claimed CART was too expensive. True, CART does not come cheaply. For the Marx course, the School of Education paid $125 per hour for CART services. This covered Ms. Messineo’s in-class time, equipment and updated CART software, and out-of-class time entering vocabulary into her software and editing the transcripts after class. Given Ms. Messineo’s high level skills, equipment and software costs, work in class and outside class, flexibility to work both during the day and evenings, student-friendly approach, and willingness and ability to provide CART in courses with diverse content (e.g., Marxist theory, physics), Ms. Messineo’s fee was reasonable.

For a 3-hour course in a 14-week semester, the captioner’s fee totaled $5,250 for CART services for the semester. According to a local interpreter referral agency that provides sign language interpreters for Syracuse University, sign language interpretation is charged at approximately $40 per hour starting in January, 2002. Two interpreters are normally assigned for each class. For a 3-hour, 14-week semester course, the total would come to $3,780. CART would be $1,470 more per course than sign language interpretation. For a CART stenographer and one sign language interpreter, the cost would be $6,930, a total of $3,150 more per course over the usual provision of sign language interpretation. If Syracuse University needs to retain one or two interpreters from out of town, the interpretation costs would rise because travel is included.

Syracuse University is a multimillion-dollar institution, and these sums are but a mere pittance for the university coffers. The Internal Revenue Service offers private institutions like Syracuse a certain level of tax relief. Clearly in this case, the costs of CART cannot support an undue financial hardship argument. What the university needs to do is to budget adequately for CART; this requires proactive planning and fundraising. As the old adage goes, it is better to light a candle than to curse the darkness.

Defense No. 4: Other Computer-Based Systems

Syracuse University claimed C-Print was just as effective as CART. That is not the case. C-Print is a “Computer-Aided Speech-to-Print Transcription System” developed at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID) in Rochester. C-Print uses two laptop computers (one for the student and one for the transcriber). C-Print training requires 50-60 hours of training through a manual and audiotapes, followed by participation in a five-day workshop (this can be offered at a host institution). C-Print provides a summary of lectures and discussions (it can be thought of as an extensive note-taking system), rather than a verbatim transcript. The advantage of C-Print is that since it uses two laptop computers, the student can make comments by typing on the laptop and having the transcriber read the comments out loud.

The disadvantages of C-Print are: (1) the transcriber filters class materials and makes decisions about which information to record; (2) since the transcription is not verbatim, C-Print is not conducive to classroom interaction and discussion; and (3) it is not intended for three-hour courses. C-Print transcribers do not have nearly the level of training of CART reporters. Moreover, according to a representative at NTID, C-Print would not be appropriate for a three-hour course. A document from NTID states, “Captionists cannot type using C-Print for more than an hour without risking physical harm to wrist and hands” (stenography machines are designed differently than computer keyboards; a court reporter can caption or translate for up to three hours at a time).

Conclusion

State of the art technology is always changing, improving, and becoming cheaper. That is a fact of life in technologically sophisticated America of the 21st century. Indeed, NTID recently received federal funding to adapt new speech recognition technology to provide real-time speech-to-text transcription as a support service to deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In this system, a hearing intermediary dictates words into a voice-silencing microphone in a steno mask as a teacher speaks, and the computer software converts the dictated words into text. Stanford University is a test site for a voice-activated computerized transcription system called the Liberated Learning Project developed in Canada. The software converts a lecturer’s words into print flashed on a large screen. With the development of voice-recognition software, this kind of cost-effective technology will be widely available in the relatively near future. For many, but not necessarily all, students and classes, new systems might serve as a replacement for the CART and C-print technologies. CART may be cutting edge today, but ordinary and routine tomorrow. Moreover, CART will continue to evolve. Universities have a responsibility to remain open to these changes, and to seek to exploit them for the benefit of their students. The ADA also demands flexibility in imagining and crafting an accommodation for individual student. The law tells us that we need to consider each request on its own merits, evaluating it in the light of the student’s needs, the circumstances of the class, and the effectiveness of various accommodations. CART must be included in this evaluation, not just automatically ruled out. Indeed, universities do not need reminding that regulations issued by the United States Department of Justice interpreting Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically include “computer-aided transcription services” among the examples of appropriate auxiliary aids and services that can provide effective communication access.

Finally, CART challenges us to push the envelope-to go beyond compliance with the law. Why settle for just one kind of accommodation when state of the art technology can maximize the scholastic experience of the student?

A DICTIONARY OF ACCOMMODATIONS
Compiled by Julia White

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act require that universities provide reasonable accommodations that afford equal opportunity for students with disabilities. However, accommodations for students with disabilities are sometimes perceived by faculty and administration as costly modifications that have the potential to disrupt the classroom environment. Although accommodations provide disabled students the equal opportunity to fully participate in a course, accommodations also have the potential to provide for all students the opportunity for both richer modes of instruction and the benefit of important and diverse perspectives from the experiences of disabled students in the classroom.

The following dictionary is based on the principles of universal design of instruction. These accommodations are not a “laundry list” from which student and office of disability services staff choose; rather, they are a listing of modifications that can be used in the classroom to accommodate impairments and differences-in many cases these accommodations can also enhance the classroom environment and experience and provide for the full participation of all students in that classroom.

Accessible classroom: Accessing the classroom is one of the most important issues in accommodation. A student should not modify his or her schedule because a classroom in inaccessible; the class should be moved to an accessible room.

Adequate illumination: Too harsh or too little lighting in the classroom can affect students with and without visual impairments.

Advance notice of schedule/syllabus changes: This modification is necessary for students with visual impairments and learning disabilities who rely on recorded or electronic format texts for course readings. Any changes to the schedule or syllabus should be made in a timely manner (at least four weeks) so that their texts can be made available through the office of disability services to meet the schedules changes. Also, this affords all students in the class the opportunity to adjust their own reading/work schedules for the course.

Alphasmart: This is a small keyboard/display device the size of a notebook that does not require an outlet. Students can use it to take notes in the classroom and can then upload their notes into a word processing program on their computers.

Alternative/electronic format: Students might require course material in a variety of formats at different times (e.g., course readers in electronic format, but class handouts in Braille). Print material is usually provided in three formats: Braille, on tape, and electronically. The electronic format materials can be accessed through a computer monitor, either in the original font or in large print through a screen magnifier or through a screen reader program such as JAWS. Although persons with visual impairments usually use Braille, persons with visual impairments and learning disabilities use recorded and electronic formats. Electronic formats can benefit many students who do not wish to waste paper to print material.

Assistance with “bubble sheets”: Students with orthopedic/mobility impairments, learning, or psychiatric disabilities might require amanuensis when taking a mechanically graded test (“bubble sheet”). Some learning disabilities affect tracking skills, which might make it difficult for students to keep track of lines and bubbles. The same thing might happen with students who are taking medications for psychiatric illness or other health impairments.

Braille: Named after its inventor, Louis Braille (1809-1852), Braille is a system of printing or writing in which the characters consist of raised dots to be read by the fingers.

Breaks during class (or examinations): Although breaks during class are beneficial for Deaf students who use interpreter services, it is also beneficial for all students, as they are able to focus their concentration because they know when breaks will occur. This accommodation is also beneficial to students with learning disabilities, mobility impairments, psychiatric disabilities, and other health impairments, as it permits students to recover from fatigue, re-focus on the test, and sustain attention in shorter time increments. Breaks could potentially be offered to all students, and those who wish to forego the break continue taking the exam.

Captions/Subtitles: Captioned videos/films in class (or films that are subtitled) are beneficial not only to students who are Deaf or have hearing impairments and students with some learning disabilities, but also to students for whom reading the captions reinforces their learning.

CART: Communication Access Real-Time Transcription (CART) is a communication system in which a stenographer produces real time text on a computer, which is either projected onto a screen, or is read from the computer monitor. This technology benefits not only the student for whom this accommodation is being provided, but also the other students in the class, as they are able to use the transcript for their notes, as well as the professor, as he or she is able to evaluate his or her teaching and save the transcript for future use.

Chart program: This software provides graphic organizers that can be used in the classroom for the benefit of all students, including students who might find it difficult to follow handwritten charts/graphic organizers, and for independent study.

Comfortable temperature in the classroom: Like adequate lighting and reduced noise in the classroom, a comfortable temperature in the classroom is important. Too cold or too hot temperatures in the classroom may exacerbate fatigue in students with health impairments (and in all students) or may impede concentration on course material.

Computer: Computers in the classroom are useful in many ways. In “smart classrooms,” a computer can take the place of a chalkboard or dry erase board, as the instructor can use it for notes, which benefits all students in that the notes are completely legible. Students can use notebook computers to take notes; and students who have visual or mobility impairments and learning disabilities can use a computer for exams.

Dictation/voice recognition software: Students with visual and mobility impairments can use this software, as well as students with learning disabilities. People who find it difficult to sit in front of the computer and start composing at the keyboard can also use this software.

Display control: When creating PowerPoint presentations or any class material to be displayed in the classroom from a monitor, be mindful of color contrast, font and font size, background color, etc. Also, these materials should be provided to students with visual impairments in advance, and it is helpful to limit unnecessary graphics in these materials for students who access them through screen readers.

E-mail: While e-mail can be a tool to disseminate class information (e.g., a class listserv), it can also be a tool for providing feedback to students for classwork (for students who might have difficulty reading handwriting) and a vehicle through which student and instructor might conference on class issues. E-mail is a good way to communicate with students who are uncomfortable with interpersonal interaction.

Ergonomic desks, chairs, study carrels and computer stations: While ergonomic furniture has obvious benefits for students with orthopedic and mobility impairments, it also benefits everyone in the class, including non-traditional students who might have been at work all day and find that ergonomic furniture is more comfortable and makes it easier to concentrate.

Examination alteration: Examinations should evaluate what students know, not how a disability impacts their taking a particular type of test. Some students with memory difficulties might do better at multiple-choice than at fill-in-the-blank or short answer tests. Other students with reading difficulties might find it difficult to discriminate among multiple-choice items and might prefer short answer or essay questions. Oral exams instead of essay exams might be beneficial to some students. Cooperative examinations are creative ways that instructors can evaluate students on their knowledge base through their strengths.

Extended test time: Like breaks during tests or exams, extended test time allows students to focus their attention without anxiety over running out of time when taking a test.

Grammar Check: Like Spell Check, all students can use this software for class assignments. Some students with learning disabilities can use this software to reduce errors on exams.

Interpreters: Students who are Deaf or have hearing impairments might use interpreters in the classroom. Interpreters in the classroom can provide benefits for all students. Moderate instructor speaking pace reduces interpreter error and benefits notetaking and comprehension of all students. Interpreters can inform the instructor of the quality of captioned videos. The instructor should provide a list of jargon and difficult vocabulary in advance so as not to impede their work, which in turn benefits all students if that list were made available to the class. Instructors should provide visual cues (but should also be mindful that students do not always access visual material well, so the visuals should also be read).

Lecture notes from instructor: Lecture notes from the instructor are beneficial to students with learning disabilities in which their auditory processing is affected. Lecture notes can also benefit all students, as like CART transcripts, they can use the notes to reinforce their own class notes.

Handouts: Any handouts that an instructor gives to students must be pre-prepared and given to all students at the same time (including in alternative format). The instructor should confer with the disabled student to find out how the student prefers handouts (e.g., in advance electronically or in Braille at the same time as the rest of the class). Lists of proper nouns, jargon, and difficult vocabulary provided to interpreters should also be provided to the rest of the class to assist with notetaking and class participation.

Multiple modes of instruction delivery: Instruction should be multi-modal when there are students with disabilities in the classroom. It might be quite difficult for a student who is Deaf, has a visual, mobility, or other health impairment, or a learning or psychiatric disability to sit and listen to a lecture for three hours. In fact, this is difficult for most students. Differentiated instruction is beneficial to all students.

Narration: When showing a video in the classroom, the instructor should be mindful of students with visual impairments. It is important that the instructor or a classmate narrate the video to the student with the visual impairment so that the student is able to fully participate in the class activity.

Notetaker: Notetakers are beneficial for students who are Deaf, have visual, mobility, or other health impairments, or learning or psychiatric disabilities. Notetakers can be obtained confidentially through the office of disability services.

Oral examinations: An oral examination can be an alteration of an essay exam, or an essay exam could be substituted for an oral examination. This modification might be beneficial to all students, as they would have a choice between exam formats.

Peer editing: As part of a cooperative assignment, peers might edit each other’s work. While some students might edit for mechanics, other students (including students with reading or writing disabilities) might edit for content.

Print quality: It is very important that the print quality of instructors’ readers be good. When texts are used in readers year after year, the print becomes blurred. Not only is the text difficult to scan for students who require material in electronic format, but it is also difficult to read for students with and without learning disabilities.

Printed version of verbal instructions: Printed instructions benefit not only students who are Deaf or have hearing impairments, but also students who have auditory processing learning disabilities, attention-deficit disorder, psychiatric disabilities, or disabilities that cause fatigue or shortened attention spans. Printed instructions could be provided to the entire class (or emailed to the class), so that students may clarify the assignment while they are doing it by referring to the text of the instructions.

Reader for examinations (and/or course materials): Readers are beneficial to students who have visual impairments, some learning disabilities and orthopedic/mobility and other health impairments.

Recorded books/course materials: Recorded books and course materials are beneficial to students who have visual impairments, reading disabilities, and attention difficulties due to fatigue from orthopedic/mobility or other health impairments, or psychiatric disabilities.

Reduced noise level: Like adequate illumination and comfortable classroom temperature, it is important that the noise level be reduced in the classroom to facilitate the concentration and subsequent participation of all students.

Screen magnification software: This software is beneficial to students who have visual impairments as well as students who have perception difficulties.

Screen reader software: This software is beneficial to students who have visual impairment and students who have reading difficulties. This software reads a document in electronic format, which some students prefer over recorded materials, readers, or Braille.

Scribe: A scribe is like a notetaker, but different. A scribe is someone who writes for a person who cannot or who has difficulty taking written tests or in answering “bubble sheet” questions (e.g., if they get distracted, can’t follow the order of the lines, etc). Students who have visual impairments, some learning disabilities and orthopedic/mobility and other health impairments benefit from this accommodation.

Separate room/reduced distraction testing environment: Some students with learning disabilities, psychiatric disabilities, or other health impairments can benefit from taking examinations in a separate room with an environment where there is reduced distraction. This also could happen in the classroom, if there is sufficient space to provide students with a reduced distraction environment.

“Smart classrooms”: “Smart classrooms” are classrooms that are technologically enhanced. These classrooms provide instructors and students with a computer that feeds into an LCD projector, which can then project large-print notes onto the chalk or dry erase board. The classroom also provides uber-overhead projectors that can enlarge and focus transparency images better than typical overhead projectors. These classrooms typically have video capabilities and ports into which notebook computers can be attached to facilitate student and instructor presentations.

Speaker facing class during lecture: It is important for all students, particularly students who are Deaf or have hearing impairments and students with oral language and auditory processing learning disabilities, that the speaker face the class during a lecture. It is imperative that students are able to both hear the speaker clearly and see the facial expressions of the speaker during the time he or she is speaking.

Speaker repeating questions asked in class (or repeating student comments): For the benefit of all students, particularly students who are Deaf or have hearing impairments and students who have learning disabilities or other difficulties discriminating among voices, that the speaker or instructor repeat any questions asked in class. Students often speak softly and do not project their voices, and it is oftentimes difficult for all students to hear or clearly understand the question or comment.

Spell Check: Like Grammar Check, all students can use this software for class assignments. Some students with learning disabilities can use this software to reduce errors on exams.

Substitutions for oral class reports: Like alternative examination formats, instructors should allow students with disabilities to choose their preferred mode of reporting or presenting an assignment to the class. As in multi-modal, differentiated instruction, providing all students with a choice among presentation/report modes would be beneficial to all students. Take home examinations: This type of examination can be done at a pace that is comfortable for each student.

Tape recorders: Students who have visual impairments, some learning disabilities, and psychiatric, orthopedic/mobility or other health impairments whose concentration is affected might find recording class lectures beneficial. Many students might find taping the class lectures beneficial, as in CART or instructor’s lecture notes, the recording reinforces course notes.

Unfamiliar vocabulary written on board or handout: Regardless whether there is an interpreter in the classroom or not, providing all students with proper nouns, jargon, and unfamiliar or difficulty vocabulary is beneficial to all students.

Visual aids: When using visual aids in the classroom (e.g., overheads, charts, graphic organizers, videos, notes) it is imperative that these aids be accessible to all students. Visual aids should be verbally described to students with visual impairments, they should be clearly constructed for students with perception and discrimination difficulties, and they should be large enough to be seen by all students in the classroom.

Reprints: Raising the Visibility
of Disability on Campus

Please note that we are unable to produce all of the reprints here on our web site. We have indicated contact information for each resource, or hyperlinks if applicable. You can obtain a complete print copy of this information package by contacting the Center on Human Policy via email at thechp@sued.syr.edu or by phone (315-443-3851 or 1-800-894-0826).

Annotations of Select Published Resources

TITLE: ACCESS: How to best serve postsecondary students who are hard of hearing

AUTHORS: Self Help for Hard of Hearing People, Inc. and the Northeast Technical Assistance Center

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: no date available

National Technical Institute for the Deaf
Northeast Technical Assistance Center (NETAC)
52 Lomb Memorial Drive
Rochester, NY 14623
http://www.netac.rit.edu/

This is a training packet for postsecondary faculty, staff, and administration. It contains a PowerPoint presentation (and overhead alternatives) that overviews hearing loss and access to communication. The packet includes presenter’s notes, a tape that the presenter can use in order for participants to experience different degrees of hearing, and useful and informative Teacher Tipsheets on a variety of topics (Nondiscrimination in Higher Education, Cued Speech, Working with Students Who Are Late-Deafened, Teaching Students Who Are Hard of Hearing, The Role of Assistive Listening Devices in the Classroom, Computer Aided Realtime Transcription, Serving Deaf Students Who Have Cochlear Implants, C-Print, Considerations When Teaching Students Who Are Deaf-Blind).

TITLE: Accommodations in higher education under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A no-nonsense guide for clinicians, educators, administrators, and lawyers

AUTHORS: Gordon, M., & Keiser, S. (Eds.)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1998

Guilford Press
72 Spring Street
New York, NY 10012
http://www.guilford.com

This book is divided into two sections: essential concepts for administrative considerations and documentation of clinical conditions. The editors and authors focus on the language of the law in advising administrators (disability service providers) and diagnosticians on both whether or not to provide accommodations and how to write reports to increase chances of receiving accommodations. The primary discussion of the language revolves around whether or not a student has a “substantial limitation” when “compared with the abilities of the average person.” The authors point out the “thorny question” that by virtue of being in university, students are high functioning relative to the average person, but then move into a discussion of substantial limitation relative to the university population. The book touches upon controversial issues, for example, a student who received accommodations in high school might not be eligible for accommodations in college, ADHD, entitlement, and “minimal effective accommodation.” The second section offers advice to clinicians on how to prepare reports more effectively to maximize the potential of the client to receive accommodations. The book focuses on learning, psychiatric, and physical disabilities. The authors approach the topic from a compliance mindset; however, they present case studies and actual diagnostic reports that should be helpful to clinicians and to students who request accommodations.

TITLE: ADA Q & A: Section 504 and postsecondary education

AUTHOR: Leuchovius, D.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1994

Project PRIDE
PACER Center
8161 Normandale Blvd.
Minneapolis, MN 55437
http://www.pacer.org/pride/504.htm

Because many parents of students with disabilities have learned the basics of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), they often find they are less familiar with the protections provided by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. The questions answered in this web-based document reflect those most commonly asked of PACER staff regarding the ADA and postsecondary institutions and provides information about the ADA and Section 504 for students and their advocates who are exploring postsecondary education.

TITLE: Americans with Disabilities Act: Responsibilities for postsecondary institutions serving deaf and hard of hearing students

AUTHORS: Kincaid, J., & Rawlinson, S.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1999

Midwest Center for Postsecondary Outreach (MCPO)
Saint Paul Technical College
235 Marshall Avenue
Saint Paul, MN 55102
http://www.mcpo.org/

This publication is set up as a series of questions and answers that deal with the ADA, Section 504, and reasonable accommodations. It is divided into the following sections: literacy; interpreting; notetaking; captioning; vocational rehabilitation; administration issues; residence halls; and equipment.

TITLE: Blindness enters the classroom

AUTHOR: Michalko, R.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2001

Disability & Society, 16(3), 349-359.

In this article the author uses his own experience as a blind professor to explore the ways in which blindness, sightedness, and knowledge intersect. Michalko, a sociology professor, discusses that not only does he teach an introductory sociology class, but he also introduces his students to the way they think about reading, seeing, and knowing. At the end of the article, he briefly enters into a discussion of disability as a social identity in relation to his classroom.

TITLE: A closer look: Perspectives and reflections on college students with learning disabilities

AUTHORS: Adelizzi, J., & Goss, D. (Eds.)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1995

Curry College
1071 Blue Hill Avenue
Milton, MA 02186
http://www.curry.edu/pal/outreach/CloserLook.doc

This book is a collection of personal accounts by teachers and students describing their teaching and learning experiences. The authors are teachers and learners from the Curry College Program for Advancement of Learning (PAL), an internationally renowned support program for college students with learning disabilities. Collectively, they bring a wide spectrum of experience and perspectives to this work.

TITLE: College students with disabilities: A desk reference guide for faculty and staff

AUTHORS: Thompson, A., & Bethea, L.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1996

Project PAACS
Department of Counselor Education and Educational Psychology
Mississippi State University
P.O. Box 9727
Mississippi State, MS 39762
http://www.educ.msstate.edu/PAACS/products/fsg.html

This is a slim, but fairly comprehensive guide geared specifically toward faculty and staff at Mississippi State University. The authors break down Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and explain what universities can and cannot do and provide a partial list of modifications and accommodations. They also put university responsibilities in the context and under the heading of recent legal decisions (although they do not cite the specific case). Student and faculty/staff responsibilities are outlined. The largest part of this reference guide is the section on types of disabilities and reasonable accommodations. Orthopedic/mobility impairment, blindness/visual impairment, learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder, traumatic brain injury, deafness/hearing impairment, speech and language disorders, psychological disorder, and “other” disabilities that do not fit into these categories are defined, characteristics of the disability are listed, and potential accommodations are provided. A section entitled “Tips for Disability Awareness” provides useful strategies for appropriate language and interaction with students with disabilities.

TITLE: Deafness 101

AUTHOR: Brooks, P.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1999

Postsecondary Education Consortium (PEC)
Center on Deafness
Claxton Complex A507
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN 37996-3454
http://sunsite.utk.edu/cod/pec/

This practical booklet covers many aspects of what faculty and staff might need to know in order to support students who are deaf or hard of hearing. The booklet provides a short discussion of the spectrum of hearing loss and various communication modes used by individuals. The author outlines support services and assistive listening devices available to students and then moves into testing and classroom accommodations for students who are deaf or hard of hearing. There is a separate section for accommodating college students, although the previous section is also applicable. Responsibilities for students, instructors, and disability service providers are delineated along with advice for hiring interpreters, information about secondary disabilities, and institutional responsibility.

TITLE: Democracy in teacher education: Equality versus excellence

AUTHORS: Karickhoff, M., & Howley, A.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1997

The Teacher Educator, 33, 61-69.

This article explores issues encountered at a college of education teacher preparation program around serving at-risk students and students with disabilities. The article presents how the college of education developed plans to accommodate at-risk and students with disabilities, faculty responses to these plans, and the various meanings that “equality of educational opportunity” and “democratic practice” have for teacher educators.

TITLE: The Developing English Skills and Knowledge Program handbook

AUTHOR: Rohloff, J.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: no date available

Postsecondary Education Consortium (PEC)
Center on Deafness
Claxton Complex A507
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN 37996-3454
http://sunsite.utk.edu/cod/pec/

The DESK (Developing English Skills and Knowledge) Program is currently offered to high school English classes at the Louisiana School for the Deaf in order to prepare high school students to transition to postsecondary education. This program is structured around a series of workshops that address English writing skills issues. The author has devised activities to improve the writing skills of deaf and hard of hearing students, but these activities would be appropriate for any student who needs to work on writing skills in order to transition to postsecondary education.

TITLE: Digest of educational statistics, 2002

AUTHOR: National Center for Education Statistics

PUBLICATION INFORMATION:

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
Institute of Education Sciences
U.S. Department of Education
1900 K Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20006
202-502-7300
http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/digest02/

The 2002 edition of the Digest of Education Statistics is the 38th in a series of publications initiated in 1962. Its primary purpose is to provide a compilation of statistical information covering the broad field of American education from pre-kindergarten through graduate school. The Digest includes a selection of data from many sources, both government and private, and draws especially on the results of surveys and activities carried out by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The publication contains information on a variety of subjects in the field of education statistics, including the number of schools and colleges, teachers, enrollments, and graduates, in addition to educational attainment, finances, federal funds for education, libraries, and international education. Supplemental information on population trends, attitudes on education, education characteristics of the labor force, government finances, and economic trends provides background for evaluating education data. The Digest contains seven chapters: “All Levels of Education,” “Elementary and Secondary Education,” “Postsecondary Education,” “Federal Programs for Education and Related Activities,” “Outcomes of Education,” “International Comparisons of Education,” and “Libraries and Educational Technology.” Preceding these chapters is an introduction that provides a brief overview of current trends in American education, which supplements the tabular materials in chapters 1 through 7. The Digest concludes with an appendix that is divided into several sections. For example, information on the structure of the statistical tables is contained in the “Guide to Tabular Presentation.” The “Guide to Sources” provides a brief synopsis of the surveys used to generate the tabulations for the Digest. Also, a “Definitions” section is included to help readers understand terms.

TITLE: Disabled students in higher education: Administrative and judicial enforcement of disability law

AUTHOR: Milani, A.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1996

Journal of College and University Law, 22, 989-1043.

This article summarizes cases administrative and court decisions that have interpreted the phrases “reasonable accommodation,” “otherwise qualified,” and “substantial modification” in order to clarify issues for students with disabilities pertaining to admissions, accommodations, aids, and access. Some issues with which this article deals include standardized testing, readmission, documentation, class waivers, testing, attendance, and fees for auxiliary aids. The author concludes that while the ADA and Section 504 encourage full participation of students with disabilities, the imprecise nature of the laws require that students and schools work together for the student to achieve full participation.

TITLE: Essentials of college living: Curriculum guide

AUTHOR: Kelly, C.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1999

Postsecondary Education Consortium (PEC)
Center on Deafness
Claxton Complex A507
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN 37996-3454
http://sunsite.utk.edu/cod/pec/

The author offers a curriculum guide to colleges so that they may develop a semester long orientation/transition course with the intent to assist Deaf and Hard of Hearing students in adjusting to the transition to postsecondary education. While the objective of the curriculum guide is to assist students who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing, it is not made clear in the publication whether the intention of the course is to enroll only students who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing or if the course is structured in such a way that hearing students could take the course also. The guide is arranged around nine topics (the college structure, rules, and resources; time management; study and test taking skills; stress management; self-esteem; healthy lifestyles; personal finances; diversity; and leadership) and each topic includes resources and activities. The author indicates that handouts and videos should be used, but does not provide copies of them, nor does she provide publication information for the videos. There are some general activities in this guide that might be useful to instructors, but this is definitely a college orientation curriculum.

TITLE: Everybody in? The experience of disabled students in colleges of further education

AUTHORS: Ash, A., Bellew, J., Davies, M., Newman, T., & Richardson, L.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1996

Barnardo’s
Tanners Lane
Barkingdale
Illford
Essex, IG6 1QG
UNITED KINGDOM
http://www.barnardos.org.uk/index.html

This is a research study by Barnardo’s, a British charity that examines the experiences of students with disabilities at three British universities and their relationships with non-disabled peers. The study also investigates the opinions of non-disabled students of their peers with disabilities. Both groups of students responded to questionnaires and were interviewed by the researchers. The student without disabilities were surveyed about friendships, leisure time spent with peers with disabilities, and opinions on anti-discrimination laws. They were interviewed about what they felt the meaning of “disability” to be, relationships, inclusion, and laws. The students with disabilities were interviewed about friendships, access, disability policies, interactions with staff, problems, inclusion, choice, and attitudes. The heart of the study is an emphasis on inclusive education at the postsecondary level and attitudes around this issue. While almost every subject endorsed inclusion, it is interesting to note that both non-disabled students and students with physical disabilities doubted that student with “learning difficulties” (intellectual disabilities) would be included successfully at the postsecondary level.

TITLE: Extreme court blues

AUTHORS: Snyder, S., & Mitchell, D.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2001

Brace Yourselves Video
University of Illinois at Chicago
1640 W. Roosevelt Rd., Room 207 (M/C 626)
Chicago, Illinois 60610-626
312-996-1508

Framed in the context of the Alabama v. Garrett Supreme Court decision, this video chronicles the backlash to this decision at the University of Illinois Chicago-the formation of the National Disabled Students Union (NDSU). The video is organized speeches given by rally and NDSU organizers; the speakers consistently make comparisons between disability issues and civil rights (comparing the reaction to the Garrett decision with the SNVCC and the Deaf President Now movement). Speakers also address issues such as tokenism, the history of institutionalization, eugenics, and sterilization, federal intervention in states’ rights (e.g., comparison between the Garrett decision and the Pierce veto of a federal land grant for Dix’s establishment of an asylum), the Independent Living movement, Not Dead Yet, and access to the general public education curriculum for students with disabilities.

TITLE: Faculty development in higher education: Training products and resource information

AUTHOR: Office of Postsecondary Education Demonstration Projects

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2003

Virginia Commonwealth University
Professional Development Academy
1314 W. Main St.
P.O. Box 842011
Richmond, VA 23284-2011
http://www.students.vcu.edu/pda/index.htm

This resource packet for higher education faculty presents 21 projects at universities nationwide. Each project summary includes the contact information, project website, title, a brief description of the project, major areas of focus, and products that the projects offer.

TITLE: Faculty disability services handbook

AUTHOR: Heyward, S. M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Heyward, Lawton & Associates, Inc.
P.O. Box 1847
Sagamore Beach, MA 02562
508-833-9974

This handbook contains a summary of the legal responsibilities of faculty members as well as colleges and universities to provide accommodations to students with disabilities. The handbook’s analysis of the law is comprehensive and helpful. As a legal summary, the handbook focuses on the compliance with Section 504 and the ADA and on what is not required under the law.

TITLE: The faculty/staff guide: Optimizing the learning environment for students with disabilities

AUTHORS: Merrick, J. (Ed.).

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1998

Disability Support Services
Montgomery College
51 Mannakee Street
Rockville, MD 20850
http://www.mc.cc.md.us/Departments/dispsvc/tbl-cnts.htm

This is a comprehensive on-line guide from Disability Support Services at Montgomery College in Rockville, MD. This document was initially produced in print in 1998 by Montgomery College Disability Support Services (DSS) through Project JOBTRAC, a federally funded three-year grant to increase faculty and staff awareness about the needs of students with disabilities. Since its original publication, the text has been modified for Internet use and is enhanced with new ideas as the inspiration arises.

TITLE: Focus on faculty: Effective pedagogy with students who are deaf and hard of hearing: Questions and answers

AUTHOR: Western Region Outreach Center & Consortia

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1998

PEPNet Resource Center
National Center on Deafness
California State University, Northridge
18111 Nordhoff Street
Northridge CA 91330-8267
http://www.pepnet.org

This booklet is comprised of questions faxed during a live satellite teleclass in which five faculty members at California State University, Northridge participated in a moderated discussion. The panelists and other faculty members responded to the questions. This is a constructive booklet, as the instructors share both their successful teaching strategies and strategies/issues that they have had to re-think. Each question has a response by at least two instructors, which provides more than one perspective. The booklet is helpful as it stands, but as these questions were faxed in during a teleclass, being familiar with the videotape of the class might be more useful in understanding the context of the questions.

TITLE: Going to college! Postsecondary programs for students with moderate and severe disabilities

AUTHORS: Hall, M., Kleinert, H. L., & Kearns, J. F.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000, January/February

Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 58-65.

This article is an account of a pilot project at Asbury College in Jessamine County, Kentucky. Through a partnership with the local school district, several transition-aged students with disabilities spend part of each school day on campus at Asbury College and are paired up with college students in education and related fields.

TITLE: IMPACT: Feature issue on postsecondary education supports for students with disabilities

AUTHOR: Institute on Community Integration

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: Spring 2000

Institute on Community Integration
University of Minnesota
109 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive SE
Minneapolis, MN 55455
612-624-4512
http://ici.umn.edu/products/newsletters.html

This issue features a wide variety of information on postsecondary education for students with disabilities. This includes: four articles that provide overview of major issues related to postsecondary education; profiles of various educational institutions, agencies, and other organizations that are successfully promoting postsecondary education opportunities for students with a broad range of disabilities; profiles of diverse individuals who are pursuing postsecondary education; resources for further information; and a listing of demonstration projects related to students with disabilities in higher education.

TITLE: IMPACT: Feature issue on young adults with disabilities and Social Security Administration employment support programs

AUTHORS: Golden, T., O’Mara, S., & Johnson, D. (Eds.)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: Spring 2002

Institute on Community Integration
109 Pattee Hall
150 Pillsbury Drive SE
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
http://ici.umn.edu/products/impact/151/default.html

This issue of Impact explores educational and employment matters for young adults that are impacted by the Social Security Administration (SSI and SSDI). Articles in this issue discuss the role of SSI in transition from school to work or postsecondary education and provide resources to students, parents, and schools on how to utilize SSI benefits. The issue also outlines a number of existing programs at institutions in various parts of the country and provides students’ personal experiences with SSI and postsecondary education, including a college student and his PCA using SSI and vocational rehabilitation funds to study abroad.

TITLE: In the trenches: What works in higher education instruction

AUTHOR: Virginia Commonwealth University’s Professional Development Academy

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2003

Virginia Commonwealth University
Professional Development Academy
1314 W. Main St.
P.O. Box 842011
Richmond, VA 23284-2011
http://www.students.vcu.edu/pda/index.htm

This packet offers an overview, outline, and handouts that accompany the March 26, 2003, Supported Employment Telecast NETwork telecast in which faculty discuss effective strategies for teaching students with disabilities. The telecast featured instructional products, methods, and resources, presentation of universal design principles and accessible technology, and an opportunity for viewers to interact with faculty presenters, and this resource packet follows the outline of the telecast.

TITLE: Inclusion goes to college: A call for action

AUTHORS: Weir, C., Taschie, C., & Rossetti, Z.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2001

TASH Connections, 27(9), 14-16.

The authors challenge the dangerous assumption that post-secondary education is not a choice for those with labels of severe disabilities and dispute the exclusionary practices of many colleges and universities. They declare it is imperative that the equality of opportunity and expectation found in inclusive education follow these students to college. Lastly, they warn of the possibility that universities and colleges may accept students with labels of severe disabilities but then only offer them the “special” version of college life. This article represents a strong call to action in support of inclusive post-secondary education for all.

TITLE: King Gimp

AUTHORS: Hadary, S. H., & Whiteford, W. A.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1999

HBO Films
2049 Century Park East, Ste.#3600
Los Angeles, CA 90067
310-201-9536
http://www.hbo.com/kinggimp/king/

Provides vignettes of the life of Dan Keplinger, an artist and (now) graduate student in art, from his childhood in a segregated school, to an inclusive school, to college, and to his entrance into graduate school. Dan Keplinger has cerebral palsy.

TITLE: Learning technologies: Students with disabilities in postsecondary education

AUTHOR: Fichten, C., Marile, M., & Asuncion, J. (Eds)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: Spring 1999

Adaptech Project
Dawson College
3040 Sherbrooke St. West
Montreal, PQ H3Z 1A4
CANADA
http://www.adaptech.org/pubs/79160final_e.pdf

The Adaptech Project, a Canadian study carried out in partnership with the National Education Association of Disabled Students (NEADS), examines and evaluates how postsecondary students, college and university faculty and staff, policy makers, and developers and suppliers of adaptive technologies use these technologies. This two-year, countrywide, and bilingual study explores both the benefits and limitations of adaptive (computer and information) technologies for postsecondary students as well as the needs and concerns of service providers and technology developers. This comprehensive study discusses student technology use and performance, describes the various technologies that students use for specific disabilities, and institutional evaluations of adaptive technologies in postsecondary education.

TITLE: Listening to student voices about postsecondary education

AUTHORS: Lehmann, J. P., Davies, T. G., & Laurin, K. M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000

Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(5), 60-65.

The authors of this article share their experiences with “Aiming for the Future,” a project developed collaboratively between a community college and university school of education. This project brought together a support team that included students with a variety of disability labels for a “summit” meeting to identify and address elements needed by students for successful post-secondary experiences. The group identified four broad barriers to success: lack of understanding and acceptance from others in the college community, lack of adequate support services, lack of sufficient financial services and guidance, and lack of self-advocacy skills and training. The authors include ideas for eliminating or lessening these barriers, and share general information about the subsequent steps Aiming for the Future took to address issues identified by students.

TITLE: Moving on: A guide for students with disabilities making the transition to post-secondary education

AUTHORS: Faba, N., Whaley, B., Smith, F., & Gaulin, C. (Eds.).

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

National Educational Association of Disabled Students
4th Level Unicentre
Carleton University
Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6
CANADA
http://www.neads.ca/movingon/en/about/movingon9_web.pdf

A web-based publication of the National Educational Association of Disabled Students (NEADS) for high school students with disabilities as they plan for transition to postsecondary education. This guidebook, specific to Canada, seeks to assist youth with disabilities in making informed decisions when pursuing higher education with respect to academic options, available financial aid and accommodations that support their studies. The book also provides excellent descriptions of model transition programs and non-governmental organizations that can provide assistance.

TITLE: Negotiating identities, negotiating environments: An interpretation of the experiences of students with disabilities

AUTHOR: Low, J.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1996

Disability & Society, 11(2), 235-248.

This paper explores the experiences of nine Canadian university students with disabilities. Through in-depth interviews and focus groups, the researcher examined issues related to accessibility, negotiation of disability identities, and interacting with members of the university community who don’t have disabilities. While the author does not offer recommendations for change, she does suggest that future change efforts be aimed at sociocultural as well as individual levels of society.

TITLE: OSERS News in Print: Postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities

AUTHOR: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Service, U.S. Department of Education

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: Summer 1991

OSERS News in Print
Room 3129, Switzer Building
330 C Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20202-2525
202-732-1723

This 30-page issue deals with postsecondary education and employment preparation. The issue contains six articles: 1) “Supported education for people with psychiatric disabilities: Issues and implications;” 2) “Postsecondary education for students who are deaf: A summary of a national study;” 3) “Developing a sense of community for students with disabilities at a tribally controlled college;” 4) “Project Employment: A model for change;” 5) “HEATH Resource Center: National clearinghouse on postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities;” and 6) “Assisting young adults with TBI to get and keep employment through a supported work approach.”

TITLE: Pah! I’m in college… Now what?

AUTHOR: Western Oregon University’s Northwest Outreach Center

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: no date available

PEPNet Resource Center
National Center on Deafness
California State University, Northridge
18111 Nordhoff Street
Northridge CA 91330-8267
http://www.pepnet.org

This 28-minute video chronicles the first semester experiences of Sarah, a deaf freshman. With a combination of acted scenarios and lecture in ASL (all of which are captioned and have voiceovers), the video explains what a deaf student’s responsibilities are when he or she enters a university, and what the responsibilities of the Office of Disability Services are. Topics covered in this video include the differences between what an interpreter’s role is in high school and what an interpreter’s role is in college, how a student can obtain services (with a definite stress on student responsibility and timely/early submission of required forms in order to obtain services for the first class or activity), and school resources available to the student.

TITLE: Postsecondary education: A choice for everyone

AUTHOR: Institute on Disability

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: no date available

Institute on Disability/UAP
University of New Hampshire
10 Ferry Street, Unit 14
Concord, NH 03301
http://iod.unh.edu/publications/pdf/tips-PostSecondaryEd.pdf

A four-part series of informational brochures that provide brief informational tips on high school preparation, the differences between high school and college, collaboration, and selecting a college.

TITLE: Postsecondary education and individuals with disabilities: Recommendations to New York State for strategies to increase access and opportunity

AUTHORS: The Board of Regents and the State Education Department et. al.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000

The Office of Vocational and Educational Services for Individuals with Disabilities (VESID)
Postsecondary Education Unit, Room 1613
One Commerce Plaza
Albany, NY 12234
http://www.suny.edu/disabilities/TaskForce/rtf/taskforcereport.rtf
or
http://www.suny.edu/disabilities/TaskForce/pdf/Fullreport.pdf

This report of the Task Force on Postsecondary Education and Disabilities focuses on equal educational access and opportunity for all New York state postsecondary students. The task force stresses the preparation of high school students for transition planning to postsecondary education and the active recruitment of students with disabilities by education institutions. The report outlines nine goals (preparation for postsecondary education opportunities, institutional commitment within postsecondary education, capacity of all campus personnel and students to work with and teach students with disabilities, universal design and access through assistive technology, career development and full employment opportunity, regional coordination and partnerships, accreditation and review, funding and financial mechanisms to enhance the educational opportunity for students with disabilities, and management structure for continued collaboration and implementation) and provides a discussion of the goal, specific strategies to meet the goals, and expected outcomes. The report also includes appendices on background/rationale of the importance of postsecondary education for students with disabilities (including the fiscal benefits, both for the student and the state) and characteristics and enrollment statistics of students with disabilities.

TITLE: Postsecondary education for individuals with multiple sclerosis: Issues and strategies

AUTHORS: Yagodich, N., & Wolfe, P.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000

The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 23, 34-41.

This article presents the etiology of multiple sclerosis and the implications that symptoms might have for postsecondary education (e.g., fatigue and ambulation difficulties). The article also explores environmental considerations, medical needs, insurance and financial support, and self-advocacy issues. A postsecondary checklist is included in the article.

TITLE: Postsecondary options for students with significant disabilities

AUTHORS: Grigel, M., Neubert, D., & Moon, S.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(2), 678-73.

This article describes the On-Campus Outreach grant that funds programs that serve students with disabilities as they transition from public schools. On-Campus goals include participating in college classes; obtaining employment; navigating adult service agencies, self-determination, developing friendships, and developing age-appropriate leisure and recreation endeavors. This article provides detailed steps to school and community agents can work together to explore options for students in their final years of high school. A needs assessment chart of students and current services is included.

TITLE: Preliminary findings: Faculty, teaching assistant, and student perceptions regarding accommodating students with disabilities in postsecondary environments

AUTHORS: Burgstahler, S., Duclos, R., & Turcotte, M

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000

DO-IT
University of Washington
Box 355670
Seattle, WA 98195-5670
206-685-DOIT (3648) – voice/TTY
http://staff.washington.edu/sherylb/prelim.html

Focus groups of faculty, teaching assistants, and students with disabilities were conducted at 23 post-secondary institutions to explore the experiences of each group in supporting students with disabilities (or being supported) in post-secondary education. Groups discussed understandings of related legal issues, perceptions of additional knowledge or responsibilities needed, and problems encountered. Preliminary findings indicate that faculty and staff would like access to accommodation methods (rather than categorical, disability-specific information), and that a variety of training models (workshops, reference materials, and seminars) are needed to meet these needs. The authors suggest that campuses undertake needs assessments in order to tailor accommodations to address their individual needs.

TITLE: Program for Deaf Adults: A multicultural model for deaf and hard of hearing students

AUTHOR: Northeast Technical Assistance Center

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1999

Rochester Institute of Technology
National Technical Institute for the Deaf
52 Lomb Memorial Drive
Rochester, NY 14623-5604
http://www.netac.rit.edu

This pamphlet outlines the Program for Deaf Adults, an outgrowth of the Task Force on Pluralism of LaGuardia Community College in New York City. The Program for Deaf Adults (PDA) is a part of the Division of Adult and Continuing Education and offers basic courses (in the LaGuardia academic division) and a college preparatory course, a preparatory program for deaf foreigners, Adult Basic Education, Regents test preparation, GED prep, pre-vocational skills and computer training, and support services (interpreting, tutoring, notetaking, and supplemental instruction). The program also offers ASL/English Interpretation courses and has proposed a Deaf Studies Associate Degree program. LaGuardia is committed to multicultural education and stresses multicultural curriculum and the PDA, which has a multicultural student body, is an intrinsic part of this pluralistic institution.

TITLE: “R U Ready?” Helping students assess their readiness for postsecondary education

AUTHORS: Babbit, B., & White, C.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(2), 62-66.

This article presents a brief literature review of transition issues for students with disabilities; areas include social skills, self-advocacy, accommodations, financial concerns, and responsibility. The article also includes a transition tool that students can use in consultation with their high school teachers to prepare for their postsecondary education.

TITLE: Responding to disability issues in student affairs [New Directions for Student Service No. 64]

AUTHORS: Kroeger, S., & Schuck, J. (Eds.).

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1994

Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer
989 Market Street
San Francisco, CA 94103-1741
415-433-1740
http://www.josseybass.com/

This book is a compilation of articles and essays about students with disabilities and disability services in higher education. Includes information about students of color, trends in higher education, preparing students for employment, and more. Essays address how colleges can begin to focus on student development issues for students with disabilities, in addition to providing access and accommodations under the Americans With Disabilities Act.

TITLE: Ro

AUTHOR: Joenro Productions, Inc.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Joenro Productions, Inc.
111 Schuler Street
Syracuse, NY 13203

This video was produced as a senior thesis by two SU students and shows Ro Vargo, a young woman who has Rett Syndrome, as she audits class at Syracuse University, volunteers at a local day care center, and engages in social and family activities.

TITLE: The stress of the university experience for students with Asperger syndrome

AUTHOR: Glennon, T.

PUBLICATION IFORMATION: 2001

Work, 17, 183-190.

This article explores specific social and academic stressors for university students with Asperger syndrome and presents strategies and interventions to alleviate anxiety and stress in order to ease the transition to independence.

TITLE: Student with disability meets college challenges

AUTHOR: Wohlberg, B.

PUBLICATION IFORMATION: 2002

Pacesetter, 25(3), 7.

This short article outlines the Professional Assistant Center for Education (PACE) program at National-Louis University in Chicago through the experiences of a student, Nick Baltins.

TITLE: Students with disabilities preparing for postsecondary education: Know your rights and responsibilities

AUTHOR: U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights

PUBLICATION IFORMATION: July, 2002

ED Pubs
Education Publications Center
U.S. Department of Education
P.O. Box 1398
Jessup, MD 20794-1398
http://www.ed.gov/ocr/transition.html

This pamphlet provides information about the rights and responsibilities of students with disabilities who are preparing to attend postsecondary schools. The information is conveyed in the form of questions and answers.

TITLE: Succeeding in postsecondary ed through self-advocacy

AUTHORS: Lock, R., & Layton, C.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2001

Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 66-71.

This article is intended for students with learning disabilities and outlines a process for developing a Self-Advocacy Plan to be shared with course instructors. The process suggested by the authors is based on a survey instrument, the Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory (LDDI) (Hammill & Bryant, 1998), with is designed to assist individuals with learning disabilities in identifying their strengths and learning needs. The authors include a sample Self-Advocacy Plan that was developed from the LDDI, and bulleted lists of suggestions about communicating with professors and using campus resources.

TITLE: Survival guide for college students with ADD or LD

AUTHOR: Nadeau, K.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1994

Magination Press
19 Union Square West
New York, NY 10003
http://www.maginationpress.com

This short book (56 pages) is primarily a listing of what students with ADD, ADHD, and/or LD need to be aware of both before they choose a college and when they enter college. The book is divided into four sections: choosing a college; help on campus; help in the community; and helping yourself. The author is very thorough in writing about how a student can maximize his or her college experience. Advice is given on many topics, including suggestions of what requirements to look for when choosing a college, how to self advocate with the Office of Disability Services, time management skills, and how to plan long-term projects.

TITLE: Symposium on supporting students with disabilities in postsecondary education

AUTHORS: Stodden, R. A., & Dowrick, P.W. (Eds.).

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2001

Disability Studies Quarterly, 21(1). Available online at: http://www.cds.hawaii.edu/DSQ/issues/page01.asp?dsqID=2

This issue consists of a symposium of articles on supporting students with disabilities in postsecondary education edited by Robert A. Stodden and Peter W. Dowrick of the Center on Disability Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. In the “Introduction” to the symposium, the editors state: “While data indicate a consistent positive correlation between level of education and valued career or employment prospects, participation by adults with disabilities in postsecondary education remains low in comparison with nondisabled peers. Even with reasonable access to higher education, people with disabilities encounter significantly more barriers than other students resulting in slower progress and less satisfactory grades and graduation rates.” Since its establishment in 1998, the National Center for the Study of Postsecondary Educational Supports (NSCPES) has conducted research on a wide variety of issues related to postsecondary education for students with disabilities. This issue of the DSQ provides a sample of emerging work supported by and related to the efforts of the national center. In the articles, topics addressed include: improving the quality of higher education for students with disabilities, implication of the Workforce Investment Act, postsecondary education services and employment outcomes with the vocational rehabilitation system, a comparison of services offered by university centers for disabled students, and perspectives from disabled and nondisabled faculty members.

TITLE: Transition and post-school outcomes for youth with disabilities: Closing in on post-secondary education and employment

AUTHORS: Hawkins, G., & Camacho, C. (Eds.).

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2000

National Council on Disability
1331 F St., NW, Suite 850
Washington, DC 20004
Voice: 202-272-2004
TTY: 202-272-2074
http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/transition_11-1-00.html
or
http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/pdf/transition_11-1-00.pdf

This report analyzes 25 years of research on transition outcomes and post-secondary education for students with disabilities. A number of laws and initiatives are examined, including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the Youth Opportunity Movement, Youth Centers under the Workforce Investment Act, the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act, and demonstration projects. Recommendations are made for the disability community and for national, state, and community entities.

TITLE: The transition from high school to postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities: A survey of college service coordinators

AUTHORS: Janiga, S., & Costenbader, V.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 462-468.

This study explores transition services for students with learning disabilities who pursue postsecondary education in New York State from the perspective of service providers at postsecondary educational institutions. The article presents difficulties that high schools might have in assisting students as they plan to transition to postsecondary education and how college service providers assess such transition services. Through a survey, the authors found that postsecondary service providers were not satisfied with students’ self-advocacy skills and with transition services provided by high schools. The authors also found that postsecondary service providers desired improved communication between themselves and high schools in order to improve services for students.

TITLE: Twins transition… And leave behind a changed school system in their wake

AUTHOR: Apel, L.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 2002

Exceptional Parent Magazine, 9, 32-35.

This is a brief account of the educational histories of Anastasia and Alba Somoza, twins from NYC who both have cerebral palsy and are starting their freshman year at college.

Additional Resources

Professional Organization
Special Interest Groups (SIGs)

American Bar Association, Commission on Mental and Physical Disability Law http://www.abanet.org/disability/
This is the primary entity within the American Bar Association focusing on the law-related concerns of persons with mental and physical disabilities. Its mission is “to promote the ABA’s commitment to justice and the rule of law for persons with mental, physical, and sensory disabilities and their full and equal participation in the legal profession.” The Commission’s members include lawyers and other professionals, many of whom have disabilities.

American Education Research Association (AERA) SIG: Disability Studies in Education
http://ced.ncsu.edu/2/dse/
Purpose: To encourage Disability Studies in education; to provide an organizational vehicle for networking among Disability Studies researchers in education; and to increase the visibility and influence of Disability Studies among all educational researchers.

American Psychological Association, Disability Issues Office
http://www.apa.org/pi/cdip
The Office provides information about and referrals to disability organizations, offers technical assistance, and develops and disseminates reports, pamphlets, and other written materials on student, professional, and consumer issues. The office also supports the Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology whose primary mission is to promote the psychological welfare of people with disabilities.

Association for Computing Machinery, Special Interest Group on Computers and the Physically Handicapped
http://www.acm.org/sigcaph/
ACM’s Special Interest Group on Computers and the Physically Handicapped, SIGCAPH, promotes the professional interests of computing professionals interested in the research and development of computing and information technology to help people. The SIG membership (from both academia and industry) focuses on the application of technology to all kinds of disabilities, including but not limited to: sensory (hearing and vision); motor (orthopedic); cognitive (learning, speech, mental); and emotional personnel with physical disabilities and the application of computing and information technology in solving relevant disability problems. The SIG also strives to educate the public to support careers for the disabled.

Association of American Geographers (AAG) Disability Specialty Group (DSG): The Disability and Geography International Network (DAGIN)
http://courses.temple.edu/neighbor/service/disability&geography.html
To foster communication among members and to encourage research, education, and service that addresses issues of disability and chronic illness. The group will provide support and advocate with disabled members of the Association while working closely with other specialty groups to promote common interests and develop intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary projects.

Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) SIGs
http://www.ahead.org/resources/siglist.html 
The Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) is a national organization for disability service providers in higher education. AHEAD SIGs, or Special Interest Groups, are AHEAD members organized around an interest or concern. SIGs provide leadership to the AHEAD membership by providing information and referral, organizing professional development opportunities, and networking around a particular topic. AHEAD has had SIGs on Disability Studies and Women with Disabilities; however, these SIGs are currently inactive.

Disability Studies in the Humanities
http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/interests/ds-hum 
DS-HUM is intended to serve as a forum and bulletin-board for those interested and involved in disability studies across the broad range of humanities scholarship, not just American Studies. In addition to serving as a connecting point for scholars, teachers and students in this field of study, this website contains announcements, directories, bibliographies, syllabi and other relevant materials.

Graduate and Professional Students (GAP)
http://www.ahead.org/resources/siglist.html 
The purpose of this AHEAD special interest group is to help bridge the GAP experienced by many service providers and students with disabilities in graduate and professional programs. The group’s goal is to help answer questions about identification, accommodations, licensure and certification issues, transition issues and faculty awareness. Contact: Jane Thierfeld-Brown, jbrown@law.uconn.edu .

Modern Language Association, Committee on Disability Issues in the Profession
http://www.mla.org/comm_disability
Considers the needs and interests of scholars who have disabilities and addresses a variety of related issues, including access to the convention and scholarship in the field of disability studies.

National Women’s Studies Association, Disability Caucus
http://www.nwsa.org/disc.htm
NWSA supports and promotes feminist/womanist teaching, learning, research, and professional and community service at the pre-K through post-secondary levels and serves as a locus of information about the inter-disciplinary field of Women’s Studies for those outside the profession. There are several NWSA caucuses whose major goals involve representation of point(s) of view currently recognized by NWSA, with one focusing on disability.

Society for Medical Anthropology, Disability Research Interest Group 
http://www.medanthro.net/research/disability/index.html
The Society for Medical Anthropology supports several committees and caucuses which address the unique interests and needs of its membership. These Special Interest Groups offer linkages to scholars with shared concerns and sponsor informational newsletters, award competitions and projects. The Disability Research Interest Group is still in the process of forming.

Organizations and Resource Centers
General Disability Information

The Arc of the United States
1010 Wayne Avenue, Suite 650
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 565-3842
(301) 565-3843 – Fax
(301) 565-5342 – Fax
http://www.thearc.org 
The Arc of the United States works to include all children and adults with cognitive, intellectual, and developmental disabilities in every community.

The Center for An Accessible Society
2980 Beech Street
San Diego, CA 92102
619-232-2727
619-234-3155 FAX
619-234-3130 TTY
E-mail: info@accessiblesociety.org
http://www.accessiblesociety.org
Funded by the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, The Center for An Accessible Society is a national organization designed to focus public attention on disability and independent living issues by disseminating information developed through NIDRR-funded research to promote independent living.

The Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University
805 South Crouse Avenue
Syracuse, NY 13244-2280
315-443-3851
315-443-4355 TTY
1-800-894-0826 Toll Free
315-443-4338 FAX
E-mail: thechp@sued.syr.edu
https://thechp.syr.edu
Based at Syracuse University, this policy, research, and advocacy organization works to further inclusion and equal rights for people with disabilities. The site includes links to their publications and resources, as well as other disability resources.

Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorder
8181 Professional Place, Suite 150
Landover, MD 20785
800-233-4050
301-306-7070
301-306-7090 FAX
http://www.chadd.org/
CHADD is a national organization which has numerous publications and other resources for people with attention deficit disorder. This Web site includes online fact sheets about attention deficit disorder.

Equal Access to Software and Information (EASI)
PO Box 818
Lake Forest CA 92609
949-916-2837
E-mail: info@easi.cc
http://www.rit.edu/~easi/
EASI’s mission is to serve as a resource by providing information and guidance in the area of access-to-information technologies by individuals with disabilities.

National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY)
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013
1?800?695?0285 Voice/TTY
E-mail: nichcy@aed.org
http://www.nichcy.org 
NICHCY is the national information and referral center that provides information on disabilities and disability?related issues for families, educators, and other professionals. Among the list of numerous free resources, they provide publications on post-secondary education and transitioning to adult life.

Office of Civil Rights
U.S. Department of Education
Customer Service Team
Mary E. Switzer Building
330 C Street, SW
Washington, D.C. 20202
1-800-421-3481
877-521-2172 TDD
202-205-9862 FAX
Email: OCR@ed.gov
http://www.ed.gov/ocr/
“The mission of the Office for Civil Rights is to ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence throughout the nation through vigorous enforcement of civil rights.”

Office of Disability Employment Policy
U.S. Department of Labor
Frances Perkins Building
200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
202-693-7880
202-693-7881 TTY
202-693-7888 FAX
http://www.dol.gov/odep/ 
ODEP is an agency within the U. S. Department of Labor. ODEP provides national leadership to increase employment opportunities for adults and youth with disabilities.

Clearinghouse on Adult Education and Literacy
U.S. Department of Education, 4090 MES
Office of Vocational and Adult Education
400 Maryland Avenue, S.W.
Washington, DC 20202-7240
202-205-8270
E-mail: OVAE@inet.ed.gov
http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html
The Clearinghouse on Adult Learning and Literacy provides referral services and disseminates publications of state and national significance and other reference materials on adult education and literacy?related activities. Resource publications include information on English as a second language, adult basic education, family literacy, workplace literacy, adults with disabilities, technology, volunteers, and the homeless.

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (ERIC EC)
The Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191
800-328-0272 or 703-264-9449
E-mail: ericec@cec.sped.org
http://www.ericec.org
ERIC EC gathers and disseminates literature, information, and resources on the education and development of individuals of all ages who have disabilities and/or who are gifted.

Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology (DO-IT)
University of Washington
Box 355670
Seattle, WA 98195-5670
206-685-DOIT (3648) – voice/TTY
http://www.washington.edu/doit/ 
DO-IT is a resource center that promotes opportunities, internetworking, and technology for young people with disabilities and provides resources and programs for young people with disabilities, parents, employer, and educators.

Organizations and Resource Centers
on Inclusive Postsecondary Education and Transition

The Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD)
P.O. Box 540666
Waltham, MA 02454
781-788-0003 – voice/TTY
781-788-0033 FAX
E-mail: AHEAD@ahead.org
http://www.ahead.org/ 
AHEAD was founded in 1977 to address the need and concern for upgrading the quality of services and support available to persons with disabilities in higher education. The Association provides education, communication and training to promote full participation in higher education for persons with disabilities.

Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability
Department of Educational Psychology
Neag School of Education
Hall Building, Ground Floor
362 Fairfield Road, Unit 2064
Storrs, CT 06269-2064
860-486-3321
860-486-5799 FAX
http://vm.uconn.edu/~wwwcped/index.html
The Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability is committed to promoting equal educational opportunities for adolescents and adults with disabilities, and seeks to educate and support preprofessionals and professionals in acquiring knowledge and skills and developing state-of-the-art practices in disability services, especially the concept of Universal Design for Instruction.

Equity and Excellence in Higher Education
Institute on Disability/UAP
University of New Hampshire
10 Ferry Street, Unit 14
Concord, NH 03301
http://www.iod.unh.edu/projects/high_school.html#EqualityandExcellenceinHigherEducation 
Equity and Excellence in Higher Education is a project designed to address the interrelated problems of poor educational outcomes for college students with disabilities and college faculty’s lack of knowledge in the area of effective curriculum and instruction for diverse learners. The goal of this project is to ensure that students with disabilities receive a quality education through the development, implementation, evaluation, and dissemination of a model of comprehensive professional development for college faculty and support personnel. Due in part to an OSERS-funded project entitled, “Postsecondary Education: A Choice for Everyone,” the Institute has a collaborative relationship with over 70% of colleges and universities in the state. Through a leadership series for disability support coordinators, a Consortium of New Hampshire Colleges was developed, composed of key representatives from New Hampshire institutions of higher education. The Consortium, along with students and recent graduates with disabilities, will act in an advisory capacity for the project. The project involves work with four model demonstration sites; additional technical assistance and information dissemination; as well as on examples and strategies to promote postsecondary education opportunities for all.

HEATH Resource Center
National Clearinghouse on Postsecondary Education for Individuals with Disabilities
The George Washington University
2121 K Street, NW, Suite 220
Washington, DC 20037
202-973-0904 – Voice/TTY
800-544-3284 – Toll free
E-mail: askheath@heath.gwu.edu
http://www.heath.gwu.edu
The HEATH Resource Center of The George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development, is the national clearinghouse on postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities. Support from the U.S. Department of Education enables the clearinghouse to serve as an information exchange about educational support services, policies, procedures, adaptations, and opportunities at American campuses, vocational-technical schools, and other postsecondary training entities. HEATH participates in national conferences, training sessions, and workshops; develops training modules; publishes resource papers, fact sheets, directories, and website information; and fosters a network of professionals in the arena of disability issues.

National Center for the Study of Postsecondary Educational Supports
Center on Disability Studies
University of Hawai’i at Manoa
1776 University Avenue, UA 4-6
Honolulu, HI 96822
808-956-5688
http://www.rrtc.hawaii.edu 
The National Center for the Study of Postsecondary Educational Supports is funded as a Rehabilitation Research and Training Center by the U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research. The vision of the Center is to move beyond what has and has not worked in the past, towards a new system of educational supports for people with disabilities in the 21st century. Postsecondary programs of the future must foster high expectations, build self-confidence, and develop an understanding of strengths and weaknesses of all students. All teachers, support persons, and agency providers must focus upon the use of individualized supports and technology to meet each student’s needs and promote a successful transition to chosen career. The collaborative members of the National Center for the Study of Postsecondary Educational Supports are The University of Massachusetts/Boston; the Virginia Commonwealth University; the University of Minnesota; Association for Higher Education and the Disabled (AHEAD); with the University of Hawaii. The consortium members of the National Center are The DO-IT Project of Washington University; the Ohio State University; and the Bridges Project of Holt High School/Lansing Community College. Based on its research, the Center has many reports available on its web site; in addition, the conference sponsors institutes and conferences.

National Center on Secondary Education and Transition (NCSET)
Institute on Community Integration
University of Minnesota
6 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive SE
Minneapolis, MN 55455
612-624-2097
E-mail: ncset@umn.edu
http://www.ncset.org/
NCSET develops and promotes research-based secondary education and transition models that integrate academic, career development, work-based and community learning, and increasing school retention and completion rates. The Center’s goals specifically focus on youth with disabilities and families, policymakers, professionals at all levels, and the service delivery system as a whole to ensure all students with disabilities, including those with significant needs, have access to the full range of learning experiences in the general education curriculum. The Center is a collaborative effort between the Institute on Community Integration and five organizations nationwide. It is funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. Among various transition projects are two specifically related to postsecondary education and American Indians with disabilities, with a focus on: (1) supporting and preparation and transition of high school American Indian students with disabilities; and (2) supplying technical assistance to high school and college faculty and staff to meet the needs of students with disabilities and at risk in transition. NCSET produces a wide variety of information briefs (e.g., policy updates, parent briefs, issue briefs, what works data briefs), some of which focus on postsecondary education and transition to postsecondary education.

National Disabled Students’ Union
430 North East 16th Avenue
Portland, OR 97343
803-524-6029
http://www.disabledstudents.org/
The National Disabled Students Union (NDSU) is a nationwide, cross-disability, student organization concerned with civil rights. They work to ensure that all disabled students have the opportunities they need to learn, the opportunities they need to live and work, and the opportunities they need to be full participants in their communities and full members of American society.

National Educational Association of Disabled Students (NEADS)
Carleton University
4th Level Unicentre
Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6
CANADA
http://www.neads.ca/en/ 
A Canadian self-advocacy/self-empowerment organization that publishes a regular newsletter and conducts research.

National Transition Alliance for Youth with Disabilities (NTA)
The Academy for Educational Development
1825 Connecticut Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20009-5721
202-884-8181
202-884-8443 FAX
http://ici.umn.edu/ncset/publications/nta/default.html
The NTA was funded from 1995 to 2001 by the U.S. Departments of Education; the mission of the NTA was to promote the transition of youth with disabilities toward desired postschool experiences, including gainful employment, postsecondary education and training, and independent living. Online versions of NTA products not found elsewhere on the Internet can be found on the web site of the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition listed above.

PEPNet, the Postsecondary Education Programs Network
http://www.pepnet.org
PEPNet, the Postsecondary Education Programs Network, is the national collaboration of the four Regional Postsecondary Education Centers for Individuals who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing. The Centers are supported by contracts with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. The goal of PEPNet is to assist postsecondary institutions across the nation to attract and effectively serve individuals who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing. The mission of PEPNet is to promote opportunities for the four Regional Postsecondary Centers for Individuals who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing to coordinate and collaborate in creating effective and efficient technical assistance to postsecondary educational institutions, thereby providing access and accommodation to individuals who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing. The objectives of PEPNet are: (1) to improve postsecondary access and transition opportunities for individual who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing; (2) to develop a national design for technical assistance and outreach service delivery to assure that postsecondary institutions and the students they serve will benefit from PEPNet’s collaboration and coordination efforts; (3) to expand the knowledge and skill of postsecondary institutions related to the provision of educational support services for Deaf and Hard of Hearing students; (4) to increase networking among postsecondary educational institutions; and (5) to increase the postsecondary enrollment, retention, graduation and employment rates of students who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing.

Project PRIDE
(PACER’s Rehabilitation Act Information & Disability Education)
8161 Normandale Blvd.
Minneapolis, MN 55437
952-838-9000 – Voice
952-838-0190 – TTY
Toll-free in Greater Minnesota: (800) 537-2237
952-838-0199 – FAX
E-mail: pacer@pacer.org
http://www.pacer.org/pride/
Project PRIDE provides information about the Rehabilitation Act and the other programs and services it affects, which include: supported employment, independent living services and Centers for Independent Living, Transition Planning for youth, and rehabilitation services.

INCLUSIVE POST SECONDARY PROGRAMS
FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Beacon College
http://www.beaconcollege.edu/ 
From their web site: “The mission of Beacon College is to offer degree programs to students with learning disabilities. The College offers Associate of Arts and Bachelor of Arts degree programs in Human Services and in Liberal Studies.”

College Connection
http://wwwold.macewan.ca/users/hcs/ta/cpp/cc.htm
This site describes the College Connection program at Grant MacEwan Community College. College Connection is an effort to include students with developmental disabilities at the college.

Curry College, Program for the Advancement of Learning (PAL)
http://www.curry.edu/pal/index.htm
The Program for Advancement of Learning (PAL) is a structured support program providing assistance to college-able students with specific learning disabilities.

Landmark College
http://www.landmarkcollege.org/
Landmark College is a liberal arts college designed specifically for students with dyslexia, attention deficit disorder, and other learning disabilities. This Web site gives more information about the college, the student body, and current programs.

PACE Program: National-Louis University (Chicago)
http://www3.nl.edu/academics/nce/programs/pace/index.cfm
Two-year postsecondary program for young adults with learning disabilities, it recently included its second student with Down syndrome.

OnCampus Program (Syracuse University)
Syracuse University’s School of Education and Syracuse City Schools, using the College Connection Program as a model, currently includes six city school students between the ages of 19 and 21 in academic, vocational, and social experiences on campus, and partners them with SU students in education and related fields. OnCampus students spend their entire school day at SU. Contact Cheli Paetow or David Smukler, 370 Huntington Hall, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, 315-443-9683

On Campus (University of Alberta)
http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/ddc/incl/OnCampus.html
This program has been in operation since 1987 at the University of Alberta. Although the program initially sought social integration of young adults with developmental disabilities in the campus community, the focus has more recently shifted to include academic inclusion as well.

Threshold Program, Lesley University
http://www.lesley.edu/threshold/threshold_home.htm
Lesley University offers a comprehensive, non-degree campus-based two-year program for students with diverse learning disabilities and other special needs. This program serves approximately 50 students per year.

Websites

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Home Page
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
Extensive web site containing information about the Americans With Disabilities Act, as provided by the U.S. Department of Justice. Includes the phone number of a toll-free ADA information line.

Apple Special Needs Resources
http://www.apple.com/disability/links.html 
This comprehensive site provides not only assistive technology links, but also links to support groups, professional organizations and associations, and resource centers. No direct links to postsecondary issues, but there are many technology links.

DAIS: Disability Access Information and Support
http://www.janejarrow.com/ 
Website with a variety of information and links related to post-secondary education and students with disabilities.

Disability-Related Resources on the Internet
http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/DRR/ 
This comprehensive booklet (available both in print and electronic formats) offers resources for many areas related to disability, including not only websites, but also discussion lists, and Usenet groups. Not limited to postsecondary education, the websites, lists, and groups in this packet cover general interest categories, technology, education, legal, social, and political issues, as well as sites relating to specific disabilities.

Disability Studies Quarterly
http://www.cds.hawaii.edu/dsq/ 
This is a web-based academic quarterly for disability-related research done within the socio-political model of disability.

The Disabled Student in Doctoral and Postdoctoral Internships By Anju Khubchandani, MA, Disability Issues Officer
American Psychological Association
http://www.apa.org/apags/diversity/disabilresource.html 
This site provides information to students applying to internships. The site also provides links to professional organizations and information on the ADA.

Handling Your Psychiatric Disability At Work And School
http://www.bu.edu/cpr/jobschool/index.html 
This site offers links to resources about how mental illness affects school functioning, academic adjustments and accommodations, information (and FAQs) about reasonable accommodations and the law, and a list of websites pertaining to psychiatric illness and education, law and policy, and research. This website is part of a larger project of Boston University’s Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation (http://www.bu.edu/cpr/ ).

Help For College Students With Disabilities From Wrightslaw.Com
http://www.wrightslaw.com/flyers/college.504.pdf 
This online pamphlet provides 19 websites concerning Section 504, planning and preparing for college, and keys to success in college.

Office of Services for Students with Disabilities, Teachers College at Columbia University
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/administration/ossd/ 
Teachers College at Columbia University maintains this website, which has a variety of useful resources and links.

Open Directory Project: Society: Disabled: Education
http://dmoz.org/Society/Disabled/Education/ 
Vast website maintained by volunteers that contains numerous links to a variety of disability and postsecondary education-related sites.

Teaching College Students with Disabilities, Center for Teaching Effectiveness, University of Delaware
http://www.udel.edu/cte/disabilities.htm 
This is an extensive collection of links to information about the ADA and Section 504, resource centers, faculty and student guidebooks, articles, information on specific disabilities, and technology.

TransitionLink
http://www.transitionlink.com 
TransitionLink is an on-line community for sharing ideas, strategies, resources, and information concerning the transition to life after high school for adolescents with disabilities.

Notes

1Compiled by Julia White, based on an interview with Steven J. Taylor.
2Remote location CART requires installing a telephone line and modem in classrooms or meeting places. The deaf student has to bring her own equipment to receive remote CART.
>3According to federal regulations governing the protection of human subjects, “research” designed to yield “generalizable knowledge” is subject to Institutional Review Board (IRB) review. Although the purpose of this evaluation was not to generate “generalizable knowledge,” but rather, to assess the efficacy of stenographic transcription in a particular context, Dr. Taylor applied for, and received, a formal exemption from IRB review.
4Another factor is likely to increase demand. A subcommittee of the New York State Bar Association’s Committee on Courts of Appellate Jurisdiction has recommended a rate of $1.375 per page for court reporters. Even taking into account equipment and software costs and out-of-class time, a CART reporter can earn more than a court reporter. This suggests that there would be a pool of potential CART providers if steady work were available from the university.