This book analyzes the relationship between ideas about community life and the impact of social policy, demonstrating that, at least in England, there is "a vacuum at the heart of care policy which is likely to lead to ineffective or deteriorating provision of services" (p. ix). Bulmer's analysis is very relevant to North American discussions about community integration of people with disabilities. The book focuses more on informal support or care than on services and service systems, but he looks at both and at the interface between the two types of care in the community. His analysis draws heavily on a variety of research studies conducted in neighborhoods, within groups of families, and in other aspects of community life and is a major contribution to the discussion about community integration. This book is addressed to academics and policy makers.

AUTHOR: Forest, M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1989

This essay is also a chapter in L. Meyer, C. Peck and L. Brown, Critical issues in the lives of people with disabilities, (1990), Paul Brookes Publishing Company. It is a personal reflection by Marsha Forest on the many relationships that have enriched her life and the lives of her friends and family members. Interwoven with the personal stories are stories about integrating students with disabilities into regular schools. Always, Forest points out how much we all have to give each other, and how much we miss when people with perceived differences are excluded from schools, neighborhoods, and friendship circles.

TITLE: The Joshua Committee: An advocacy model

AUTHORS: Forest, M., & Snow, J.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1983, Winter

TITLE: Friends circle to save a life

AUTHOR: Perske, R.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988, January

TITLE: Friends circle to save a life

AUTHOR: Perske, R.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988, March

In these three articles, the authors document the life of Judith Snow, a Canadian woman who has extensive physical disabilities. Although well educated and employed at York University, Ms. Snow was forced to live in a nursing home in order to receive the physical assistance that she needed. Through the combined efforts of several of her friends, Snow was enabled to leave the nursing home and move into her own apartment.

Forest and Snow share the insider's view of this story while Perske brings us up-to-date with the events of the past five years.

TITLE: Everyone here spoke sign language

AUTHOR: Groce, N. E.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1985

This ethno-historical study is an excellent portrayal of community life for deaf and hearing individuals of Martha's Vineyard. The reader is presented with the history of how the deafness was brought to the island. The book allows the reader to view the typicality of the lives of Islanders who were deaf, typicality due to the community's acceptance that deaf and hearing individuals were all community members. Those who could hear learned sign language so that communication could occur. Groce takes us beyond the confines of medical or social definitions of deviancy and offers evidence that our pre-conceived stereotypes of what a disability may mean is really determined by the social construct we create as a society.

This well-researched book is a must, not only for people interested in the field of disabilities but for anyone trying to struggle with integration into community life. The book contains a simple thesis offering a profound message in a wide area of disciplines. It will add thought to issues that will remain unresolved and discussed for a long time to come.

TITLE: Understanding social networks

AUTHOR: Lambert, M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1983

This book pursues the increasing popularity of the concept of social networks in the human services field by offering the reader an organized and concise view not only of what networks are, but how they can be organized around individuals, groups, communities and organizations as a means to empower individuals.

First, the idea of networking is placed within its rich historical context which helps in demonstrating its well established value. As well as defined networking, its usage as a means of self-help and mutual aid are addressed. A common theme is that networks, when developed, will form a common chain and the networker will become the linkage connecting people to each other rather than relying on only the social services workers or agencies.

An idea that was addressed in the book but needs closer consideration in general is that of establishing natural networks with and for people. The book is a good over-all guide for those interested in looking at services beyond the service system and in need of some tools for how to go about initiating such a process.

TITLE: Creating responsive communities: Reflections on a process of social change

AUTHOR: Lord, J.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1985

A clear and concise look into one province's struggle in attempting to create a responsive community, this study addresses the idea that, by themselves, more rights and services for people with disabilities and their families are not enough, and that physical presence alone does not mean inclusion. True involvement within the community, it concludes, means necessary supports to allow full participation and opportunities for friendships.

The report focuses not only on lessons related to the emerging vision and strategies this organization used in promoting a sense of community, but also on some of the problems they encountered. A strong family and community emphasis is clear throughout the book, as well as the strength of advocacy in creating such environments. Self-advocacy is mentioned, also, but to a lesser degree. While much of the book deals with the historical development of the province's approach, some interesting and currently relevant principles are set forth in a chapter on assistance to individuals and families.

TITLE: Affectionate bonds: What we can learn by listening to friends

AUTHOR: Lutfiyya, Z. M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1990

In this monograph, Zana Lutfiyya describes a qualitative study conducted with four pairs of friends in the Syracuse area. In each of these pairs, one person has a disability label and one does not. The author offers perspectives on friendship found in the literature, describes each of her informants and their friendships, explores the dimensions and characteristics of friendship, and relates the rights, responsibilities and obligations of friendship in her informants' eyes. She discusses how some friendships move toward greater intimacy while others stay the same or die away, and lays out some of the implications of her study for the human service world, for families, and for people thinking about their own friendships. This ground-breaking study should begin to focus our thinking on what really goes on in friendships, including those between people with and without disabilities.

TITLE: Regenerating community

AUTHOR: McKnight, J. L.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1987

McKnight begins this article with a discussion about problems with two primary orientations of social policy: institutions and individuals. He argues that the institutionalized social service system does not effectively meet the needs of individuals. Rather, it is a "design established to create control of people." As an alternative, he proposes that we look at the community--a structure of associations based on consent--to meet the needs of people. The "community of associations" is characterized by features such as interdependence, creativity, citizenship, and including: capacity, collective effort, informality, stories, celebration, and tragedy. McKnight argues that institutionalized systems grow at the expense of communities, and that instead of continuing to strengthen service systems we should work to strengthen communities. He concludes, "There is a mistaken notion that our society has a problem in terms of effective human services. Our essential problem is weak communities."

This short article will be of interest to people in the human services field--particularly those who are frustrated or dissatisfied with the social service system and its ability to meet people's needs. The challenge presented to human service workers, based on this article, is to see their role as one of helping people establish community connections and associations rather than more social service ones.

TITLE: What are we learning about bridge-building?

AUTHOR: Mount, B., Beeman, P., & Ducharme, G.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

This monograph opens with the key premise of "bridge-building." "Real integration, the development of genuine networks of support, requires very focused and assertive effort(s) on behalf of facilitators who initiate, support and maintain new relationships. We call these facilitators bridge-builders because they build bridges and guide people into new relationships, new places, and new opportunities in life" (p. 1).

As the sub-title of the monograph suggests, it is a summary of a dialogue between people who are trying to build community for and with people with disabilities by working as bridge-builders. Most of the monograph presents the reflections of five participants at a day-long discussion on bridge-building in 1988. As this publication appears to be a faithful rendering of people's words, with little attempt at a full written explication of the concepts and terms that form the new language of bridge-building, it may be unsatisfying for someone who is completely new to the idea. However, it does contrast the different perspectives held by proponents of traditional human services with that of bridge-building, and would be of interest to those readers already acquainted with this concept.

TITLE: What are we learning about circles of support?

AUTHOR: Mount, B., Beeman, P., & Ducharme, G.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

The authors offer the experiences of several "circles of support" now in existence in Connecticut. Inspired by the efforts of the Joshua Committee over the past decade, the authors helped found circles of support around several people with disabilities. "A circle of support is a group of people who agree to meet on a regular basis to help the person with a disability accomplish certain personal visions or goals" (p. 3). The monograph gives practical information on the process of starting and maintaining a support circle, with several actual examples. Circles of support serves well as both an introduction to the concept and as a useful resource for people already familiar with the issue.

Acknowledging the current fascination with "personal futures planning," the authors provide an important comparison of support circles with person-centered and traditional methods of service planning. And they wisely caution that the process outlined in the monograph is not meant as a model for replication of other support circles. Rather, "the spirit of a circle...is more important than the details of the process, and we hope that the process we describe will help people invite the spirit of support into the lives of other people" (p. 1).

TITLE: The gift of hospitality: Opening the doors of community life to people with disabilities

AUTHOR: O'Connell, M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

This monograph is part of the growing literature which critiques the human service system even when it is based in the community. It describes the efforts of people with a variety of disabilities to take their place within the community and by others to accept them. O'Connell asserts that community-based services can isolate people with disabilities from community life. Surrounded by paid staff, many clients in the human service system are cut off from the opportunities to meet and develop relationships with typical people.

By sharing the experiences of individuals with disabilities who have been welcomed into the hearts and lives of others, O'Connell introduces a practical definition of hospitality. She suggests that hospitality is "...the fundamental sense that you have to appeal to in asking other people to get involved in this work of welcoming isolated people back into the community." For the author, achieving the fullest possible integration of individuals with disabilities into society involves acts of welcome and hospitality by those who are already members.

This monograph would be useful reading for those interested in the meanings of "community integration" for people with disabilities.

TITLE: Circles of friends

AUTHOR: Perske, R./Illustrated by Perske, M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

Circles of friends presents several stories of friendship between people with disabilities and those who are not disabled. After conducting interviews across Canada and the United States, the Perskes provide readers with several vignettes of friendships. They refer to these relationships as "living documents," proof that people "...once thought too limited or strange for life in ordinary neighborhood" enjoy a variety of friendships. The story and illustrations are alternately powerful, humorous, touching and life-affirming. This book is an upbeat account of the possibilities of friendship and is meant for a wide audience, both within and outside the field of mental retardation.

TITLE: New life in the neighborhood: How persons with retardation and other disabilities can help make a good community better

AUTHOR: Perske, R./Illustrated by Perske, M.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1980

Written by well-known author and leader in the field of developmental disabilities, Robert Perske, New life in the neighborhood presents a compelling case for the integration of people with developmental disabilities into typical neighborhoods and communities. The book provides a clear and straightforward explanation of normalization, debunks the myths surrounding people with mental retardation, explains why both typical and disabled people benefit from community integration, and addresses commonplace fears such as the impact of small community residences on property values. Sensitively and clearly written, this book is directed toward a popular audience, including civic leaders, prospective neighbors of the community residences, volunteers, and other non-professionals. This is a key source for anyone involved in developing integrated community living arrangements.

TITLE: Social integration and friendship

AUTHOR: Strully, J. L., & Bartholomew-Lorimar, K.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

In S. M. Pueschel (Ed.), The young person with Down Syndrome: Transition from adolescence to adulthood. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

In the first part of this chapter, Strully and Bartholomew-Lorimar neatly summarize the experiences of many people with disabilities at the hands of the human service system. By receiving services, individuals are turned into clients and become viewed primarily in terms of their particular disability. They are surrounded by programs and staff, and are cut off from typical people, places and events. One result of this is that people in the community come to believe that segregation is an appropriate response to people with disabilities.

The authors propose that freely-given friendships between typical and disabled people "...are at the root of developing competent, caring communities for us all." They then present two case studies illustrating how to enable a person with disabilities to develop such friendships and the impact of these relationships for the people involved.

TITLE: Friendship and our children

AUTHOR: Strully, J., & Strully, C.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1985, Winter

The Strullys describe the friendship between one of their daughters, Shawntell, and one of her schoolmates, Tanya. They conclude that it is primarily through enjoying a number of close relationships and/or friendships with typical people that their daughter will be guaranteed a place in her community.

TITLE: On accepting relationships between people with mental retardation and non-disabled people: Towards an understanding of acceptance

AUTHORS: Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1989

This article outlines the "sociology of acceptance" as a theoretical framework for understanding some relationships between people with mental retardation and typical people. As a point of departure, the authors review sociocultural perspectives on deviance and explore their contribution to the study of mental retardation. Based on qualitative research at community programs for people with severe disabilities, the authors next examine the nature of accepting relationships and describe four sentiments expressed by typical people which account for their relationships with people with mental retardation: family; religious commitment; humanitarian sentiments; and feelings of friendship. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the implications of a sociology of acceptance for the field of mental retardation.

TITLE: Ties and connections: An ordinary community life for people with learning difficulties

AUTHOR: Tyne, A. (Ed.)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1988

This monograph is worth sending to England for. It attempts one of the more comprehensive discussions of interpersonal relationships in the lives of people with developmental disabilities (who are referred to in the publication as having "learning difficulties"). The monograph begins with descriptions of some of the types of relationships that people have and/or desire more of. These include friendship, acquaintances, organizational membership, being part of a family and a neighborhood. Some basic, common-sense strategies that families, disabled individuals, service workers and "typical citizens" might undertake in order to help maintain and increase the existing relationships in a person's life are outlined. The third and last chapter is a cautionary one that explores some of the difficulties faced by people with handicaps in developing a wide range of personal relationships.

TITLE: The new genocide of handicapped and afflicted people

AUTHOR: Wolfensberger, W.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1987

In this monograph, Wolfensberger attempts to describe the dangerous and life-threatening position that people with disabilities are currently placed in, largely because of their devalued status. The first sections of the monograph describe the "...negative experiences that befall devalued people," and would be appropriate reading for people interested in the process of turning people into clients.

TITLE: Citizen Advocacy and protective services for the impaired and handicapped

AUTHOR: Wolfensberger, W., & Zauha, H. (Eds.)

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1973

TITLE: CAPE: Standards for Citizen Advocacy program evaluation

AUTHOR: O'Brien, J., & Wolfensberger, W.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1980

TITLE: Learning from Citizen Advocacy programs

AUTHOR: O'Brien, J.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION: 1987

As a concept put into practice, Citizen Advocacy (C.A.) is twenty-two years old. Formulated by Dr. Wolf Wolfensberger, it was part of a larger schema that delineated advocacy and protective services needed by people with mental retardation. These services were designed to provide the necessary protection for handicapped individuals who were unable to represent themselves and had no family or friends to safeguard their interests. Citizen Advocacy was an attempt to respond to the parents' question, "What will happen to my disabled son or daughter when I'm gone?" Wolfensberger defined Citizen Advocacy as "...a mature, competent citizen volunteer representing, as if they were his own, the interests of another citizen who is impaired in his instrumental competency, or who has major expressive needs which are unmet and which are ikely to remain unmet without special intervention" (Wolfensberger & Zauha, 1973).

CAPE (O'Brien & Wolfensberger, 1980) is an evaluation tool designed to compare the practices found in a Citizen Advocacy program to the standards set by the definition and principles of Citizen Advocacy. CAPE is made up of 36 ratings which examine the efforts of the staff and board to recruit and introduce people who require protection, practical assistance, and/or friendship (proteges, partners) to capable citizens who attempt to address those needs (advocates).

O'Brien's manual (1987) provides an expanded definition and rearticulates the principles of Citizen Advocacy. This manual reflects the experiences of people in the United States, Canada, England, and Australia trying to put Wolfensberger's theory into practice. Learning from Citizen Advocacy programs is a collection of questions, activities, and resources about Citizen Advocacy. While external evaluation teams may use the manual (O'Brien suggests the possibility of doing so in conjunction with the CAPE tool), boards and staff of Citizen Advocacy offices may also use it to review their own work.

Despite the different purposes of these publications, all of the authors assume that at least some typical citizens will choose to become involved in a personal, one-to-one relationship with someone who is devalued by the society at large. Those interested in the concept of Citizen Advocacy are encouraged to read all three of these publications.

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